Psycholinguistic insights of learnt language

The Academic Phrasebank is a
general resource for academic
writers. It makes explicit the more
common phraseological nuts and
bolts of academic writing.
Academic
Phrasebank
A compendium of commonly
used phrasal elements in
academic English in PDF format
2021 enhanced edition
Personal Copy
Dr John Morley
Navigable PDF version
3rd Edition
2021 The University of Manchester
The enhanced PDF version of Academic Phrasebank is for the sole use of the individual who has downloaded it from
www.phrasebankresearch.net. Distribution of the enhanced PDF version of Academic Phrasebank by electronic (e.g. via
email, web download) or any other means is strictly prohibited and constitutes copyright infringement.
The enhanced version of Academic Phrasebank is only available on this website: http://www.phrasebankresearch.net as a
PDF file or on the Kindle store (search Academic Phrasebank in your regional Kindle store). If you see this enhanced
version of Academic Phrasebank made available anywhere else, please contact [email protected]
immediately.
2 | Page
Preface
The Academic Phrasebank is a general resource for academic writers. It aims to provide the
phraseological nuts and bolts of academic writing organised according to the main sections of a
research paper or dissertation. Other phrases are listed under the more general communicative
functions of academic writing.
The resource was designed primarily for academic and scientific writers who are non-native speakers
of English. However, native writers may still find much of the material helpful. In fact, recent data
suggest that the majority of users are native speakers of English.
The phrases, and the headings under which they are listed, can be used simply to assist you in
thinking about the content and organisation of your own writing, or the phrases can be incorporated
into your writing where this is appropriate. In most cases, a certain amount of creativity and
adaptation will be necessary when a phrase is used.
The Academic Phrasebank is not discipline specific. Nevertheless, it should be particularly useful for
writers who need to report their empirical studies. The phrases are content neutral and generic in
nature; in using them, therefore, you are not stealing other people’s ideas and this does not
constitute plagiarism.
Most of the phrases in this compendium have been organised according to the main sections of a
research report. However, it is an over-simplification to associate the phrases only with the section in
which they have been placed here. In reality, for example, many of phrases used for referring to
other studies may be found throughout a research report.
In the current PDF version, additional material, which is not phraseological, has been included at the
end of the document. These additional sections should be helpful to you as a writer.
Dr John Morley, 2021
3 | Page
Contents
About Academic Phrasebank ….……………… 4
Major Sections
Introducing Work ..……………….. 7
Reviewing the Literature ..…………….. 32
Describing Methods ..……………….. 47
Reporting Results ..……………….. 57
Discussing Findings ..……………….. 65
Writing Conclusions ..……………….. 73
General Functions
Being Cautious ..……………….. 84
Being Critical ..……………….. 88
Classifying and Listing ..……………….. 99
Comparing and Contrasting ..……………….. 102
Defining Terms ….……………… 106
Describing Trends ….……………… 111
Describing Quantities ….……………… 113
Explaining Causality ….……………… 115
Giving Examples as Support .……………… 119
Signalling Transition ….……………… 121
Indicating Shared Knowledge ….……………… 125
Writing about the Past ….……………… 127
Writing Abstracts ..……………….. 129
Writing Acknowledgements ..……………….. 132
Notes on Academic Writing
Academic Style ….……………… 135
Style in Presentations ….……………… 138
British and US Spelling ….……………… 141
Punctuation ….……………… 142
Using Articles .……………… 143
Sentence Structure ….……………… 145
Paragraph Structure ….……………… 147
Tips on the Writing Process ..……………….. 148
Useful Lists
Connecting Words ..……………….. 151
Commonly Confused Words ..……………….. 152
Commonly Used Verbs ..……………….. 154
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About Academic Phrasebank
Theoretical Influences
The Academic Phrasebank largely draws on an approach to analysing academic texts originally
pioneered by John Swales in the 1980s. Utilising a genre analysis approach to identify rhetorical
patterns in the introductions to research articles, Swales defined a move as a section of text that
serves a specific communicative function (Swales, 1981,1990). This unit of rhetorical analysis is used
as one of the main organising sub-categories of the Academic Phrasebank. Swales not only identified
commonly used moves in article introductions, but he was interested in showing the kind of language
which was used to achieve the communicative purpose of each move. Much of this language was
phraseological in nature.
The resource also draws upon psycholinguistic insights into how language is learnt and produced. It is
now accepted that much of the language we use is phraseological; that it is acquired, stored and
retrieved as pre-formulated constructions (Bolinger, 1976; Pawley and Syder, 1983). These insights
began to be supported empirically in the 1990s as computer technology permitted the identification
of recurrent phraseological patterns in very large corpora of spoken and written English using
specialised software (e.g. Sinclair, 1991). Phrasebank recognises that there is an important
phraseological dimension to academic language and attempts to make examples of this explicit.
Sources of the phrases
The vast majority of phrases in this resource have been taken from authentic academic sources. The
original corpus from which the phrases were harvested consisted of 100 postgraduate dissertations
completed at the University of Manchester. However, phrases from academic articles drawn from a
broad spectrum of disciplines have also been, and continue to be, incorporated. In most cases, the
phrases have been simplified and where necessary they have been sifted from their particularised
academic content. Where content words have been included for exemplificatory purposes, these are
substitutions of the original words. In selecting a phrase for inclusion into the Academic Phrasebank,
the following questions are asked:
does it serve a useful communicative purpose in academic text?
does it contain collocational and/or formulaic elements?
are the content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives) generic in nature?
does the combination sound natural’ to a native speaker or writer of English?
When is it acceptable to reuse phrases in academic writing?
In a recent study (Davis and Morley, 2015), 45 academics from two British universities were surveyed
to determine whether reusing phrases was a legitimate activity for academic writers, and if so, what
kind of phrases could be reused. From the survey and later from in-depth interviews, the following
characteristics for acceptability emerged. A reused phrase:
should not have a unique or original construction;
should not express a clear point of view of another writer;
depending on the phrase, may be up to nine words in length; beyond this ‘acceptability’
declines;
may contain up to four generic content words (nouns, verbs or adjectives which are not
bound to a specific topic).
Some of the entries in the Academic Phrasebank, contain specific content words which have been
included for illustrative purposes. These words should be substituted when the phrases are used. In
the phrases below, for example, the content words in bold should be substituted:
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X is a major public health problem, and the cause of …
X is the leading cause of death in western-industrialised countries.
The many thousands of disciplinary-specific phrases which can be found in academic communication
comprise a separate category of phrases. These tend to be shorter than the generic phrases listed in
Academic Phrasebank, and typically consist of noun phrases or combinations of these. Acceptability
for reusing these is determined by the extent to which they are commonly used and understood by
members of a particular academic community.
Further work
Development of the website content is ongoing. In addition, research is currently being carried out
on the ways in which experienced and less-experienced writers make use of the Academic
Phrasebank. Another project is seeking to find out more about ways in which teachers of English for
academic purposes make use of this resource.
References and related reading
Bolinger, D. (1976) Meaning and memory. Forum Linguisticum, 1, pp. 114.
Cowie, A. (1992) Multiword lexical units and communicative language teaching in
Vocabulary and applied linguistics, Arnaud, P. and Bjoint, H. (eds). London: MacMillan.
Davis, M., and Morley, J. (2015) Phrasal intertextuality: The responses of academics from
different disciplines to students re-use of phrases. Journal Second Language Writing 28 (2),
pp. 20-35.
Davis, M. and Morley, J. (2018) in. Writing with sources: how much can be copied? in
Student Plagiarism in Higher Education, edited by Diane Pecorari and Philip Shaw. Oxford:
Routledge.
Davis, M. and Morley, J. (2018) Facilitating learning about academic phraseology: teaching
activities for student writers, Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. Special
Edition, pp 1- 17. ISSN: 1759-667X
Hopkins, A. and Dudley-Evans, A. (1988). A genre-based investigations of the discussions
sections in articles and dissertation. English for Specific Purposes, 7(2), pp.113-122.
Pawley, A., and Syder, F.H. (1983). Two puzzles for linguistic theory: nativelike selection and
nativelike fluency. In: Richards, J.C. and Schmidt, R.W. (Eds.), Language and communication,
pp. 191-226. Longman: New York.
Sinclair, J. (1991) Corpus, concordance, collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Swales, J. (1981). Aspects of article introductions (Aston ESP Research Report No. 1).
Birmingham: Language Studies Unit: University of Aston.
Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Wood, D. (2015) The fundamentals of formulaic language. London: Bloomsbury.
Wray, A., and Perkins, M. (2000). The functions of formulaic language: an integrated model.
Language and Communication, 20, pp.1-28.
6 | Page
Major Sections
7 | Page
Introducing Work
There are many ways to introduce an academic essay or short paper. Most academic writers,
however, appear to do one or more of the following in their introductions:
establish the context, background and/or importance of the topic
indicate an issue, problem, or controversy in the field of study
define the topic or key terms
state the purpose of the essay or piece of writing
provide an overview of the coverage and/or structure of the writing
Slightly less complex introductions may simply inform the reader: what the topic is, why it is
important, and how the writing is organised. In very short assignments, it is not uncommon for a
writer to commence simply by stating the purpose of their writing and by indicating how it is
organised.
Introductions to research dissertations and theses tend to be relatively short compared to the
other sections of the text but quite complex in terms of their functional elements. Some of the
more common elements include:
establishing the context, background and/or importance of the topic
giving a brief review of the relevant academic literature
identifying a problem, controversy or a knowledge gap in the field of study
stating the aim(s) of the research and the research questions or hypotheses
providing a synopsis of the research design and method(s)
explaining the significance or value of the study
defining certain key terms
providing an overview of the dissertation or report structure
Examples of phrases which are commonly employed to realise these and other functions are
listed under the headings on the following pages of this section. Note that there may be a certain
amount of overlap between some of the categories under which the phrases are listed. Also, the
order in which the different categories of phrases are shown reflects a typical order but this is far
from fixed or rigid, and not all the elements are present in all introductions.
A number of analysts have identified common patterns in the introductions of research articles.
One of the best known is the CARS model (create a research space) first described by John Swales
(1990)1
. This model, which utilises an ecological metaphor, has, in its simplest form, three
elements or moves:
Establishing the territory (establishing importance of the topic, reviewing previous work)
Identifying a niche (indicating a gap in knowledge)
Occupying the niche (listing purpose of new research, listing questions, stating value,
indicating structure of writing)
1 Swales, J. (1990) Genre Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8 | Page
Establishing the importance of the topic for the discipline
A key aspect of X is
X is of interest because
X is a classic problem in
X is a central concept in
A primary concern of X is
X is a dominant feature of
X is a fundamental property of
Xs are the most widely investigated
Studies on X represent a growing field.
X is an increasingly important area in…
The concepts of X and Y are central to
X is at the heart of our understanding of
X is attracting considerable critical attention.
Central to the theory of X is the Y hypothesis.
X has been shown to occur in many different
Investigating X is a continuing concern within
X is a major area of interest within the field of
X has been studied by many researchers using
X has been the subject of many classic studies in
X has been instrumental in our understanding of
The theory of X provides a useful account of how
X has been an important concept in the study of the
Central to the entire discipline of X is the concept of
One of the most significant current discussions in X is
X has been the subject of much systematic investigation.
The issue of X has received considerable critical attention.
Understanding the complexity of X is vitally important if
X has long been a question of great interest in a wide range of fields.
The role of X in Y has received increased attention across a number of disciplines in recent years.
Establishing the importance of the topic for the discipline: time frame given
X was one of the most popular Ys during
Recent years have seen renewed interest in
Traditionally, Xs have subscribed to the belief that
Recent trends in X have led to a proliferation of studies that …
Recent years have witnessed a growing academic interest in
The nature of X has been the subject of several recent papers.
Over the past century, there has been a dramatic increase in
X proved an important literary genre in the early Y community.
X has received considerable scholarly attention in recent years
In recent years, researchers have shown an increased interest in …
Recently, considerable literature has grown up around the theme of
Recent developments in the field of X have led to a renewed interest in
The past thirty years have seen increasingly rapid advances in the field of
In the last few decades, there has been a surge of interest in the effects of
For more than a century, scientists have been interested in the existence of
The most significant recent developments in this direction have been those of
The discovery of X in 2016 has triggered a huge amount of innovative scientific inquiry.
During the last decade, the link between X and Y has been at the centre of much attention.
9 | Page
Recently,
More recently,
In recent years,
there has been
growing interest in
renewed interest in
a surge of interest in
increasing interest in
extensive research on
increased emphasis on
growing recognition of the vital links between
a growing number of publications focusing on
a greater focus placed upon X within the Y literature.
world-wide recognition of the problems associated with
X has been
studied widely
studied extensively
an object of research
studied using light-microscopy
attracting considerable interest
since
the 1960s.
it was discovered in 1998.
the early years of this century.
Establishing the importance of the topic for the world or society
X is widespread in
X is fundamental to
X is the primary means of
X is a major contributor to
X is an important aspect of
X is frequently prescribed for
The importance of X is indisputable.
X is one of the key components of Y.
Xs are among the most widely used
X is fast becoming a key instrument in …
X is the most widely distributed species of
Xs have emerged as powerful platforms for
Xs are one of the most widely used groups of
Xs are essential for a wide range of technologies.
Xs are the most potent anti-inflammatory agents known.
There is evidence that X plays a crucial role in regulating
In the history of X, Y has been thought of as a key factor in
X is a common condition which has considerable impact on
In the new global economy, X has become a central issue for …
Determining the impacts of X on Y is important for the future of
Evidence suggests that X is among the most important factors for
X is important for a wide range of scientific and industrial processes.
X is an important component in the X system, and plays a key role in …
There is a growing body of literature that recognises the importance of
Xs were the most serious and widespread popular disturbances to occur in
10 | Page
X
plays a
can play a
may play a
key
vital
major
crucial
pivotal
central
essential
important
significant
fundamental
role in
ensuring
reducing
fostering
combating
preventing
determining
protecting against
addressing the issue of
the repair of
the life cycle of
the treatment of
the regulation of
the transmission of
the maintenance of
the development of
the pathogenesis of
X is a key
part of
issue in
driver of
factor in
aspect of
feature of
element of
strategy for
indicator of
ingredient in
component of
mechanism for
determinant of
characteristic of
Establishing the importance of the topic for the world or society: time frame given
X has been an established practice since
One of the most important events of the 1970s was
Recent developments in X have heightened the need for
The last two decades have seen a growing trend towards
Recent trends in X have led to a proliferation of studies that …
Over the past century, there has been a dramatic increase in
The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many
X has experienced unprecedented growth over the past 100 years.
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Establishing the importance of the topic as a problem to be addressed
X is a key issue in
X is a leading cause of
X is a major problem in
Of particular concern is
One of the main obstacles
One of the greatest challenges
X is the leading cause of death in
A key issue is the safe disposal of
The main disadvantage of X is that
X is associated with increased risk of
X impacts negatively upon a range of
X is a common disorder characterised by
It is now well established that X can impair
X has led to the decline in the population of
X is a growing public health concern worldwide.
The main challenge faced by many researchers is the
X is one of the most frequently stated problems with
Lack of X has existed as a health problem for many years.
X is a major environmental problem, and the main cause of
Xs are one of the most rapidly declining groups of insects in …
Exposure to X has been shown to be related to adverse effects in
There is increasing concern that some Xs are being disadvantaged
There is an urgent need to address the safety problems caused by
The prevalence of X is increasing at an alarming rate in all age groups.
Questions have been raised about the safety of the prolonged use of
Despite its safety and efficacy, X suffers from several major drawbacks:
Along with this growth in X, however, there is increasing concern over
X is increasingly recognised as a serious, worldwide public health concern.
Despite its long clinical success, X is associated with a number of problems.
X and its consequences are an important, but understudied, cause for concern.
(However,)
X may cause
X is limited by
X suffers from
X is too expensive to be used for
X has accentuated the problem of
the performance of X is limited by
X could be a contributing factor to
the synthesis of X remains a major challenge.
X can be extremely harmful to human beings.
research has consistently shown that X lacks
the determination of X is technically challenging.
a major problem with this kind of application is
current methods of X have proven to be unreliable.
these rapid changes are having a serious effect on
X can be adversely affected under certain conditions.
accounting for these varying experiences is problematic .
observations have indicated a serious decline in the population of
12 | Page
Referring to previous work to establish what is already known
Recent evidence suggests that
Extensive research has shown that
Research in this area has shown that
Studies of X show the importance of
It has previously been observed that
Several attempts have been made to
Data from several studies suggest that
Previous research has established that
Recent work by historians has established that
Previous research comparing X and Y has found
The existing body of research on X suggests that
There is a growing body of literature that recognises
Several theories on the origin of X have been proposed.
Existing research recognises the critical role played by
It is now well established from a variety of studies, that
A growing body of published work provides evidence of
Recently investigators have examined the effects of X on Y.
Surveys such as that conducted by Smith (1988) have shown that
Evidence from a number of experimental studies has established that
Factors found to be influencing X have been explored in several studies.
A number of cross-sectional studies suggest an association between X and Y
Studies over the past two decades have provided important information on
A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. These studies
In the past two decades, a number of researchers have sought to determine
In previous studies of X, different variables have been found to be related to …
The first serious discussions and analyses of X emerged during the 1970s with
There have been a number of longitudinal studies involving X that have reported
Xs were reported in the first studies of Y (e.g., Smith, 1977; Smith and Jones, 1977).
What we know about X is largely based upon empirical studies that investigate how
Smith (1984: 217) shows how, in the past, research into X was mainly concerned with
Results from earlier studies demonstrate a strong and consistent association between
There are a large number of published studies (e.g., Smith, 2001; Jones, 2005) that describe
It has been
noted that
found that
shown that
argued that
reported that
assumed that
observed that
proposed that
estimated that
suggested that
established that
demonstrated that .
conclusively shown that
13 | Page
Recent
Previous
studies have
research has
found
linked
reported
shown that
documented
demonstrated
established that
What we know about X
is known about X
comes from
is (largely) based on
is (largely) derived from
accounts by
observations of
laboratory studies.
outdated studies
historical data from
epidemiological studies.
brief biographical details.
cross-sectional studies of
studies of people living in …
case studies undertaken in
contemporary textual sources.
small-scale experiments with
research using laboratory animals.
research undertaken in major cities.
a few primary sources from the time.
studies conducted in populations of X.
observations using various animal models.
Several
A number of
studies
researchers have
found
reported
identified .
shown that
attempted to
demonstrated that
investigated whether
found an association between
explored risk factors associated with
14 | Page
Identifying a controversy within the field of study
A much-debated question is whether
Debate has long prevailed as to whether
The precise effect of X is a much-debated topic.
One major issue in early X research concerned …
To date there has been little agreement on what …
The issue has grown in importance in light of recent …
There has been disagreement on the criteria for defining X.
One observer has already drawn attention to the paradox in …
Questions have been raised about the use of animal subjects in …
In the literature on X, the importance of Y has been hotly debated …
In many Xs, a debate is taking place between Ys and Zs concerning …
Debate continues about the best strategies for the management of …
This concept has recently been challenged by X studies demonstrating …
There has been much disagreement between historians on the subject of
The debate about X has gained fresh prominence with many arguing that …
Scholars have long debated the impact of X on the creation and diffusion of
More recently, literature has emerged that offers contradictory findings about …
One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philosophy is …
The relationship between X and Y has attracted conflicting interpretations from
One major theoretical issue that has dominated the field for many years concerns …
The controversy about scientific evidence for X has raged unabated for over a century.
The issue of X has been a controversial and much disputed subject within the field of …
Several divergent accounts of X have been proposed, creating numerous controversies.
The causes of X have been the subject of intense debate within the scientific community.
In the literature on X, the relative importance of Y has been subject to considerable discussion.
So far
To date there has been little agreement on
about
why
what
how to
whether
how much
the role of
the origin of
the nature of
the definition of
what constitutes …
the characteristics of
the precise nature of
how best to measure
how to conduct research on
the important question of why
15 | Page
Noting the lack of or paucity of previous research
No previous study has investigated X.
The use of X has not been investigated.
There is little published information on
The role of X remains largely unexamined.
There is very little published research on
There has been no detailed investigation of
There has been little quantitative analysis of …
Data about the efficacy and safety of X are limited.
Up to now, far too little attention has been paid to …
A search of the literature revealed few studies which
The impact of X on Y is understudied, particularly for
So far, however, there has been little discussion about …
In addition, no research has been found that surveyed …
Surprisingly, the effects of X have not been closely examined.
Surprisingly, X is seldom studied, and it is unclear to what extent
In contrast to X, there is much less information about effects of
X has hitherto received scant attention by scholars of the Y period.
A systematic understanding of how X contributes to Y is still lacking.
While X is a growing field (Smith, 2015), publications on Y remain few.
Relatively little research has been carried out on X, and even less on Y.
Despite the importance of X, there remains a paucity of evidence on
There have been no controlled studies which compare differences in …
The issue of X has attracted very little attention from the scholarly community.
To date, the problem of X has received scant attention in the research literature.
To date, no large-scale studies have been performed to investigate the prevalence of .
Although studies have recognised X, research has yet to systematically investigate the effect of
To date,
Surprisingly, X has (still) not (yet) been
closely
formally
empirically
extensively
scientifically
systematically
comprehensively
studied.
examined.
investigated.
There is a
current
relative
general
notable
surprising
lack
paucity
of studies
of well-controlled studies
investigating
describing how
that seek to identify
of empirical research
of high-quality research
in the field of
focusing specifically on
on the current prevalence of
of scientific literature
of evidence-based literature
specifically relating to
on the experiences of
describing the impact of
16 | Page
No previous study has
(Very) few studies have
Few (published) studies have
explored
focused on
investigated
controlled for
examined how
compared trends in
attempted to define
examined the role of
measured X in humans.
quantified the levels of
systematically investigated
assessed the implications of
evaluated the effects of X on
examined the consequences of
actually examined the impact of
provided quantitative evidence of
systematically evaluated the use of
attempted to quantify the impact of
adequately tested the effectiveness of
addressed the long term psychological effects of
been large enough to provide reliable estimates of
been conducted to determine the possible effects of
So far,
To date,
Up to now,
there
has been no systematic analysis of
have been no attempts to examine
has been very little research directly investigating X.
have been very few empirically published accounts of X.
(very) little
research has been carried out on
has been published on the subject of
attention has been paid to the role of
research has addressed the question of
(very) few
studies have assessed the role of
studies have examined the association between
studies have investigated x in any systematic way
randomised clinical trials have specifically investigated X in
17 | Page
Relatively
Surprisingly
Remarkably
Comparatively
few studies have analysed
assessed
examined
measured
investigated little research has
While
Whilst
Although
some research has been
carried out on X,
no single study exists which …
no studies have been found which …
no controlled studies have been reported.
there is very little scientific understanding of …
only two studies have attempted to investigate …
there have been few empirical investigations into …
the mechanism by which … has not been established.
no studies of the effects of X on Y have been published.
little if any empirical work has been done to investigate
several studies have
shown that ,
Highlighting inadequacies or weaknesses of previous studies (also refer to Being Critical)
Previous studies of X have not dealt with …
Researchers have not treated X in much detail.
Such expositions are unsatisfactory because they …
Such approaches, however, have failed to address
Most studies in the field of X have only focused on …
Previous published studies are limited to local surveys.
Half of the studies evaluated failed to specify whether …
The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y.
Previously published studies on the effect of X are not consistent.
Smiths analysis does not take account of …, nor does she examine …
The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y.
Most studies of X have only been carried out in a small number of areas.
However, much of the research up to now has been descriptive in nature …
The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic.
Research on the subject has been mostly restricted to limited comparisons of …
However, few writers have been able to draw on any systematic research into …
Short-term studies such as these do not necessarily show subtle changes over time
Although extensive research has been carried out on X, no single study exists which …
However, these results were based upon data from over 30 years ago and it is unclear if …
Recent attempts to understand X (e.g. Smith 1989; Jones 1992) pay too little attention to
The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about …
However, all the previous X research was cross-sectional in design. Therefore, it is unclear if
Although there are many reports in the literature on the outcome of X, most are restricted to …
Some evidence suggests that …, although further work using X is required to confirm this finding.
18 | Page
Previous studies have failed to
explore
consider
take account of
the impact of
the reasons for
the evidence for
the ways in which
the contexts in which
several key aspects of
the variable nature of
other explanations for
the complex nature of
the potential impact of
the social dimension of
the dynamic aspects of …
the underlying causes of
all the possible effects of
demographic factors that …
the ethical implications of …
the important role played by
the broader implications of how …
the unique complexities faced by …
the contextual factors that influence
Previous studies (of X)
Most of these studies have
mostly
mainly
largely
typically
generally
predominantly
ignored
examined
focused on
concentrated on
been concerned with
The existing literature on X
Most of the work carried out on X
fails to
suffers from
lacks clarity regarding
ignores the possibility that
has not distinguished between X and Y in a systematic way.
19 | Page
Previous studies (of X)
Most of these studies have
only involved
only been carried out in
only been undertaken using
only provided weak evidence for
been of poor quality.
been limited in a number of ways.
been limited to convenience samples.
been limited to a small number of cases.
generally been restricted to the analysis of
mainly been restricted to epidemiological observations.
Previous studies (of X)
Most of these studies have suffered from
small sample sizes.
low response rates.
confounding factors.
multiple design flaws.
an overemphasis on
inconsistent definitions.
inadequate sample sizes.
poorly developed theory.
serious sampling problems.
experimental design errors.
poor case control matching.
inadequate research design.
a lack of clarity in defining
a high degree of sampling bias.
lack of instrumental sensitivity.
considerable design limitations.
the use of poorly matched controls.
a paucity of standardised measures.
fundamental flaws in research design.
lack of a strong theoretical framework.
an over-reliance on self-report methodology.
a restricted range of methodological approaches.
shortcomings in the methods used to select cases.
a lack of well-grounded theoretical considerations.
Previous studies (of X)
Most of these studies have suffered from
certain
several
serious
various
notable
methodological
flaws.
limitations.
drawbacks.
weaknesses.
shortcomings.
20 | Page
General reference to previous research or scholarship: highlighting negative outcomes
Previous studies have failed to
find
show
demonstrate
a link between
any treatment effect.
a correlation between
a connection between
significant differences in
any convincing evidence of
a causal relationship between
any support for the X hypothesis.
any significant advantages of using
significant changes in health outcomes.
reliable, repeatable therapeutic effects of
Recent studies have
The research to date has not been able to
establish
confirm earlier
determine whether
show a link between
duplicate these results.
reproduce these findings.
replicate these associations.
rule out the possibility that
provide robust evidence for
detect an increase in the risk of
confirm earlier findings showing
No previous study has
controlled for
been large enough to
completely eliminated
distinguished between
provided information on
addressed the question of
assessed the occurrence of …
used a dynamic measure of
given sufficient consideration to
employed time-series techniques for
utilised verbal reports to examine the problem of
used a method for analysing multiple factors related to
21 | Page
Indicating missing, weak, or contradictory evidence
Evidence for X has been mixed.
The evidence for X is in fact ambiguous.
There is contradictory evidence as to whether
To date, there has been no reliable evidence that …
To date, studies investigating X have produced equivocal results.
There is conflicting evidence on the relationship between X and Y.
The evidence that X and Y are associated with Z is weak and inconclusive.
Whilst evidence is increasing that , a consistent empirical picture is missing.
Studies undertaken so far provide conflicting evidence concerning the impact of
However, conflicting results from studies suggest the need for new investigations that
Previous research findings into X have been inconsistent and contradictory (Smith, 1996; …).
Some studies have shown the beneficial effects of X, but others have shown a deterioration in
To date, (however), there has been no
little
clear
solid
reliable
clear-cut
scientific
definitive
empirical
convincing
conclusive
experimental
evidence that
Identifying a knowledge gap in the field of study
Much less is known about X.
It is still not known whether
The nature of X remains unclear.
Currently, there are no data on
What is less clear is the nature of
Very little is currently known about X in …
Research to date has not yet determined
What is not yet clear is the impact of X on …
There is still uncertainty, however, whether
The response of X to Y is not fully understood.
Causal factors leading to X remain speculative.
The neurobiological basis of X is poorly understood.
Little is known about X and it is not clear what factors …
To date, only a limited number of Xs have been identified.
The mechanisms that underpin X are not fully understood.
Much uncertainty still exists about the relationship between …
Our understanding of how is notably underdeveloped.
The potential impacts of X have not previously been analysed and quantified.
This indicates a need to understand the various perceptions of X that exist among
It is now well established that However, the influence of X on Y has remained unclear.
22 | Page
However, what is not yet
clear
known
understood
is whether
is the role of
is the effect of
is the nature of
is the importance of
is the extent to which
is the degree to which
is the actual proportion of
are the different stages of
are the circumstances that
is the actual relationship between
is the relative importance of the factors that …
What remains unclear
unknown (, however,)
is why
is how
is precisely how
is to what degree there exists
is how different species are distributed in
is how such policies and practices affect the
is whether these two systems interact.
is whether the two conditions are related.
is whether this finding is a true representation.
is whether these two factors operate independently.
However, (exactly) how
X affects Y
X inhibits Y
X develops
X is formed
X acquires Y
X damages Y
X produces Y
X increases Y
X influences Y
X benefits from Y
X contributes to Y
remains unclear.
remains poorly understood.
is (still) not yet fully understood.
23 | Page
The extent to which
X affects Y
X inhibits Y
X applies to Y
X influences Y
X moderates Y
X determines Y
X is related to Y
X plays a role in Y
X benefits from Y
X contributes to Y
X changes during
X presents a risk to Y
X corresponds with Y
X may be attributed to Y
X has been successful in
X can be extrapolated to
the problem of X is facilitated by Y
these findings have wider relevance
lack of X is causally associated with Y
is (still)
remains
unclear.
unknown.
unexplored.
poorly understood.
Stating the focus, aim, or argument of a short paper
In this paper, I argue that …
This paper has four key aims. Firstly,
The central thesis of this paper is that …
In the pages that follow, it will be argued that …
In this essay, I attempt to defend the view that …
Specifically, the following issues will be addressed:
Secondly, the study aims to assess the extent to which
In the pages that follow, the following questions will be addressed:
However, several
a number of
key
further
critical
essential
additional
important
interesting
unresolved
unanswered
fundamental
questions remain about
the role of
the nature of
the effects of
the aftermath of
the treatment for
the development of
24 | Page
This paper
argues that
gives an account of
discusses the case of
analyses the impact of
attempts to show that
contests the claim that
provides an overview of
reviews the evidence for
reports on a study which
addresses the question of
presents new evidence for
traces the development of
explores the ways in which
assesses the significance of
highlights the importance of
considers the implications of
evaluates the effectiveness of
critically examines the view that
proposes a new methodology for
surveys recent empirical studies on
examines the relationship between
compares the different ways in which
offers a new model for understanding
investigates the factors that determine
describes the design and implementation of
seeks to remedy these problems by analysing the literature of …
The (primary) aim of this paper is to
explore the
trace the history of
assess the claim that
review recent research into the …
explore the relationship between
contribute to the understanding of
provide empirical evidence for the claim that
propose a conceptual theoretical framework based on
The aim of this paper is to critically
analyse the effects of
examine the claim that
review the evidence for
examine the ways in which
review the different approaches used to
evaluate the rationale behind Xs theory of
discuss the some of the prominent ideas which
25 | Page
Stating the purpose of the current research
The specific objective of this study was to
This thesis examines the way in which the …
An objective of this study was to investigate …
This study set out to investigate the usefulness of …
This dissertation seeks to explain the development of …
This case study seeks to examine the changing nature of …
The objectives of this research are to determine whether …
The overall aim of this thesis is to review the evidence for
This prospective study was designed to investigate the use of
The aim of this study was to develop a better understanding of
This research examines the emerging role of X in the context of …
This study systematically reviews the data for…, aiming to provide …
Drawing upon two strands of research into X, this study attempts to …
This thesis intends to determine the extent to which … and whether …
This dissertation aims to unravel some of the mysteries surrounding …
This study therefore set out to assess the effect of X …, and the effect of …
The main aim of this study is to investigate the differences between X and Y.
Part of the aim of this project is to develop software that is compatible with …
There are two primary aims of this study: 1. To investigate … 2. To ascertain …
This study seeks to obtain data which will help to address these research gaps.
One purpose of this study was to assess the extent to which these factors were …
The purpose of this investigation was to explore the relationship between X and Y.
The aim of this research project has therefore been to assess the doses and risks associated with …
This study set out to
explore
determine whether
try and establish what …
better understand the
find a new method for
evaluate how effective
assess the feasibility of
test the hypothesis that
explore the influence of
clarify several aspects of …
investigate the impact of
identify the predictors for
develop an understanding of …
gain further understanding of
compare the two ways of treating
examine the relationship between
evaluate a new method of measuring
determine the predictive validity of the
understand the views and experiences of
review in detail the available information on
describe some of the more recent developments in
shine new light on these debates through an examination of …
26 | Page
The aim of
The purpose of
this study was to
this investigation has been to
predict which
establish whether
determine whether
develop a model for
examine the effects of
assess the extent to which
identify and describe factors that
compare the clinical performance of
evaluate behavioural interventions in
explore the relationship between X and Y.
better understand the relationship between
identify the most important factors influencing …
Stating purpose of the current study with reference to gaps or issues in the literature
The current study aimed to address these
questions using
limitations in two ways.
problems through the use of
gaps in the existing literature by
discrepancies and investigate the
concerns through the development of
challenges by identifying methods applicable to
issues by reviewing the scientific and technical data
Setting out the research questions or hypotheses
The hypothesis that will be tested is that …
The research questions in this study focused on
The central question in this dissertation asks how …
Specifically, the following issues will be addressed:
The specific questions which drive the research are:
This research seeks to address the following questions:
The key research question of this study was whether or not …
This study aimed to address the following research questions:
The study sought to answer the following specific research questions:
In particular, this dissertation will examine six main research questions:
27 | Page
Describing the research design and the methods used
Data for this study were collected using…
Five works will be examined, all of which
A mixed-method approach was employed using
This investigation takes the form of a case-study…
This study draws on two theoretical frameworks
Qualitative content analysis was used to examine
This study utilised clustering techniques to identify
Contemporary source material was used to examine
This study was exploratory and interpretative in nature.
This study uses a qualitative case study approach to investigate
The research data in this thesis are drawn from four main sources: …
This study employed survey methodology to investigate the impact of
The approach to empirical research adopted for this study was one of …
This dissertation follows a case-study design, with in-depth analysis of …
By employing qualitative modes of enquiry, I attempt to illuminate the …
Qualitative and quantitative research designs were adopted to provide …
This study makes use of oral history interviews as well as archival sources.
Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in this investigation.
A holistic approach is utilised, integrating X, Y and Z material to establish …
The study was conducted in the form of a survey, with data being gathered via …
This project uses interviews and participant-observation to produce an account of
The methodological approach taken in this study is a mixed methodology based on …
A combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches was used in the data analysis.
This study
This investigation
uses
used
utilised
recent
survey
existing
archival
historical
empirical
interview
secondary
qualitative
time-series
quantitative
longitudinal
retrospective
observational
cross-sectional
data (from X) to
assess
explore
analyse
examine
estimate
determine
investigate
28 | Page
Explaining the significance of the current study
This is the first study to
This work will generate fresh insight into
The study offers some important insights into …
Understanding the link between X and Y will help
This is the first study to undertake a longitudinal analysis of …
Investigating X is critically important in our understanding of
The importance and originality of this study is that it explores
The present research explores, for the first time, the effects of
The findings should make an important contribution to the field of ….
It is hoped that this research will contribute to a deeper understanding of
This study aims to contribute to this growing area of research by exploring …
This project provided an important opportunity to advance the understanding of …
Therefore, this study makes a major contribution to research on X by demonstrating …
There are several important areas where this study makes an original contribution to …
The experimental work presented here provides one of the first investigations into how
This
study
research
investigation
sheds new light on
provides new insights into
fills a gap in the research on
gives us new information on
offers a fresh perspective on
enhances our understanding of
contributes to our knowledge of
study fills a gap in the literature by
makes an important contribution by
provides the first extensive examination of
The study presented
here
in this thesis
in this report
is one of the first investigations to
use
utilise
survey
include
explore
employ
compare
undertake an
examine in detail
test the effects of
focus specifically on
assess the impact of
29 | Page
Giving reasons for personal interest in the research*
I became interested in Xs after reading …
My interest in this area developed while I was
I have worked closely with X for many years and …
This research complements an earlier study which
My personal experience of X has prompted this research.
My main reason for choosing this topic is personal interest.
The genesis of this thesis can be traced back to the time I spent
It is my experience of working with X that has driven this research.
This project was conceived during my time working for X. As a medical advisor, I witnessed
* sometimes found in the humanities, and the applied human sciences
Describing the limitations of the current study
The thesis does not engage with …
It is not the task of this paper to examine
This study is unable to encompass the entire
Establishing X is beyond the scope of this study.
It is beyond the scope of this study to examine the …
A full discussion of X lies beyond the scope of this study.
The reader should bear in mind that the study is based on …
Another potential problem is that the scope of my thesis may be too broad.
Due to practical constraints, this paper cannot provide a comprehensive review of…
Outlining the structure of a short paper
The first section of this paper will examine …
This paper begins by … It will then go on to …
The essay has been organised in the following way: …
The remaining part of the paper proceeds as follows: …
The main issues addressed in this paper are: a), b) and c).
This paper first gives a brief overview of the recent history of X.
This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with …
Outlining the structure of a thesis or dissertation
This thesis is composed of four themed chapters.
The overall structure of the study takes the form of six chapters.
The thesis is divided into three distinct sections. The first section
The third chapter is concerned with the methodology employed for this study.
Chapter 2 will consider both the sources and methods of study which will include
The purpose of the final chapter is to reflect on the extent to which this study has
Chapter 4 analyses the data gathered and addresses each of the research questions in turn.
Chapter 5 analyses the results of interviews and focus group discussions undertaken during …
The fifth section presents the findings of the research, focusing on the three key themes that …
Chapter Two begins by laying out the theoretical dimensions of the research, and looks at how …
30 | Page
The second part
The final chapter
The final section
examines
gives a brief review of
contextualises the research by
discusses the significant findings.
draws upon the entire thesis to
identifies areas for further research.
ties together the common themes and
explains the emergent themes influencing
draws together these various findings, and
draws together the key findings, making the …
draws together the various strands of the thesis.
gives a brief summary and critique of the findings.
summarises the main findings of this project and …
summarises the principal findings of these experiments and
brings together the lessons from these case studies, and then …
describes the experimental approach and instrumentation utilised in
ties together the various theoretical and empirical strands in order to …
includes a discussion of the implication of the findings to future research
Previewing a chapter
The aim of the chapter is to introduce
This chapter seeks to assess the impact of
This chapter is subdivided into three sections
The first section will attempt to assess whether
The second part highlights the key theoretical concepts which
This chapter contextualises the research by providing background information on
This chapter discusses the specific methods by which the research and analyses were conducted.
The main
topics
issues
themes
periods
developments
covered in this chapter are
31 | Page
Explaining keywords (also refer to Defining Terms)
Throughout this paper, the term X will refer to …
The term X will be used in this thesis to refer to
Historically, the term X has been used to describe
This study utilises the concept of X first proposed by
It is necessary here to clarify exactly what is meant by …
The phrase X will be used in this study to describe the
According to Smith (2002), X can be defined as follows: …
In this article, the abbreviation XYZ will be used to refer to …
Throughout this dissertation, the term X will be used to refer to …
The term X is a relatively new name for …, commonly referred to as …
In this essay, the term X will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all …
In this dissertation, the terms X and Y are used interchangeably to mean …
While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this paper will use the definition
first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as
32 | Page
Reviewing the Literature
One of the distinguishing features of academic writing is that it is informed by what is already
known, what work has been done before, and/or what ideas and models have already been
developed. Thus, in academic texts, writers frequently make reference to other studies and to the
work of other authors. It is important that writers guide their readers through this literature. This
section of Academic Phrasebank lists some of the phrases that writers may use for this purpose.
A note on the literature review: It is the purpose of the literature review section of a paper or
dissertation to show the reader, in a systematic way, what is already known about the research
topic as a whole, and to outline the key ideas and theories that help us to understand this. As well
as being systematic, the review should be evaluative and critical of the studies or ideas which are
relevant to the current work. For example, you may think a particular study did not investigate
some important aspect of the area you are researching, that the author(s) failed to notice a
weakness in their methods, or that their conclusion is not well-supported (refer to Being Critical).
A note on referencing style: The way a writer refers to other sources varies somewhat across
different disciplines. In some cases, where the individual author is important, the authors name
will be the main subject of the sentence; in other cases, the authors name may only be mentioned
in brackets ( … ) or via a number notation system (e.g. footnotes and endnotes). The author as
subject style is less common in the empirical disciplines (sciences) and more commonly used in the
humanities. Different referencing systems are used in different disciplines. In the majority of the
examples given here, the Harvard in-text referencing system has been used.
A note on verb tenses: For general reference to the literature, the present perfect tense (have/has
+ verb participle) tends to be used. For reference to specific studies carried out in the past, the
simple past tense is most commonly used. This is normally the case where a specific date or point
in time in the past forms a part of the sentence. When referring to the words or ideas of writers,
the present tense is often used if the ideas are still relevant, even if the author is no longer alive.
The examples given below reflect these general patterns, but these are by no means rigid.
General comments on the relevant literature
The literature on X has highlighted several
Much of the literature concerns X rather than Y.
Different theories exist in the literature regarding
More recent attention has focused on the provision of …
There are relatively few historical studies in the area of
A great deal of previous research into X has focused on …
A large and growing body of literature has investigated …
Much of the literature since the mid-1990s emphasises the
Much of the current literature on X pays particular attention to …
There is a large volume of published studies describing the role of …
There is a relatively small body of literature that is concerned with
The existing literature on X is extensive and focuses particularly on
The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic.
A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. These studies …
What we know about X is largely based upon empirical studies that investigate how …
The academic literature on X has revealed the emergence of several contrasting themes.
33 | Page
Much of
The greater part of the literature on X
ignores
is descriptive.
focusses on
comes from
acknowledges
takes as its focus
is concerned with
is exploratory in nature.
lacks clarity regarding
pays particular attention to …
seems to have been based on
has emphasised the importance of
of
is extensive and focuses particularly on
Previous research: a historical perspective
Research into X has a long history.
For many years, this phenomenon was surprisingly neglected by
Only in the past ten years have studies of X directly addressed how
Prior to the work of Smith (1983), the role of X was largely unknown.
Early examples of research into X include (Smith, 1962; Jones, 1974).
Over the past decade, most research in X has emphasised the use of …
In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on …
During the past 30 years, much more information has become available on …
The first serious discussions and analyses of X emerged during the 1970s with …
Over the past two decades, major advances in molecular biology have allowed
Historically, research investigating the factors associated with X has focused on
It is only since the work of Smith (2001) that the study of X has gained momentum.
An extensive series of randomised, controlled trials in the late 1970s demonstrated
The construct of X was first articulated by Smith (1977) and popularised in his book:
It was not until the late 1960s that historians considered X worthy of scholarly attention.
Awareness of X is not recent, having possibly first been described in the 5th century BCE by
Around the early 1960s, small-scale research and case studies began to emerge linking the use of
Previous research: area investigated as the sentence object
To date, several studies have investigated
A number of studies have begun to examine
Various studies have assessed the efficacy of
Researchers attempted to evaluate the impact of
A great deal of previous research into X has focused on
Several studies have used longitudinal data to examine
Previous studies have explored the relationships between X and Y.
Twenty cohort study analyses have examined the relationship between
A number of authors have considered the effects of (Smith, 2003; Jones, 2004).
At least 120 case-control studies worldwide have examined the relationship between
Numerous studies have attempted to explain (for example, Smith, 1996; Jones, 1998; ).
34 | Page
To date,
Thus far,
Up to now,
several studies
previous studies
a number of studies
have
tested the efficacy of
assessed the impact of
investigated the effects of
begun to examine the use of
used longitudinal data to examine
examined the association between
attempted to evaluate the impact of
analysed the accuracy and precision of
explored the relationships between X and Y.
Previous research: area investigated as the sentence subject
X has been proposed to explain how
The X problem has been extensively studied.
Xs have been studied extensively in vitro, using
X has been intensively investigated recently due to its
Markers for the prediction of X have been widely investigated.
X has also been shown to reverse the anti-inflammatory effects of Y in
These effects have been shown in X (e.g., Smith et al., 1981; Jones, 1996).
Factors thought to be influencing X have been explored in several studies.
X appears to be positively related to both Y and Z (Smith, 2010; Jones, 2011).
The geology of X has been addressed in several small-scale investigations and …
X has been identified as a major contributing factor to the decline of many species of
The roles of X have been studied extensively (Jones, 1989; Johnson, 1994; Smith, 1998).
The causes of X have been widely investigated (Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1990; Smith, 1994).
The relationship between X and Y has been widely investigated (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987, …
Previous research: approaches taken
Most research on X has been carried out in
Two different approaches have been used to
Most researchers investigating X have utilised
The majority of previous studies on X are based on
Using this approach, researchers have been able to
Several systematic reviews of X have been undertaken.
Historians have attempted to interpret X in the light of
The vast majority of studies on X have been quantitative.
What we know about X is largely based on observational studies.
Much of the previous research on X has been exploratory in nature.
There are a number of large cross-sectional studies which suggest
Much of the X research has focused on identifying and evaluating the
Existing comparative studies are largely observational in nature, mostly relying on
Publications that concentrate on X more frequently adopt a historical or chronological approach
35 | Page
What we know about X is largely based upon
case
clinical
empirical
qualitative
simulation
laboratory
longitudinal
comparative
experimental
observational
epidemiological
studies that investigate how …
Recent studies have
The research to date has been
conducted using
carried out using
largely exploratory.
qualitative in nature.
designed to determine whether
based on relatively small sample sizes.
undertaken in a variety of healthcare settings.
Previous research: what has been established or proposed
Several lines of evidence suggest that
Previous research has established that
Data from several studies suggest that
Recent evidence suggests that … (Smith, 2019; ).
It is now well established from a variety of studies that
New findings amongst X provides further evidence that
A number of studies have postulated a convergence between
Recently, considerable evidence has accumulated to show that
Surveys such as that conducted by Smith (1998) have shown that …
Many recent studies (e.g. Smith, 2014; Jones, 2015) have shown that
Traditionally, it has been argued that … (e.g. Smith, 1960; Jones, 1972).
Several biographies of Brown have been published. Smith (2016) presents …
In previous studies on X, different variables have been found to be related to …
Many historians have argued that … (e.g. Jones, 1997; Brown, 1999; Smith, 2019).
There is a consensus among social scientists that … (e.g. Smith, 2019; Jones, 2020; …
Data from several sources have identified the increased X and Y associated with obesity.
Recently, in vitro studies have shown that X can … (Smith et al., 1997; Jones et al., 1998).
It has been demonstrated that a high intake of X results in damage to … (Smith, 1998; …).
A series of papers on X (Jones, 1997; Brown, 1999; Smith, 2018) agree in suggesting that
Some cross-sectional studies suggest an association between X and Y (Smith, 2004; Jones, 2019).
There is a large number of published studies (e.g., Smith, 2011; ) that describe the link between
36 | Page
It has been
noted that
argued that
shown that
thought that
assumed that
reported that
observed that
suggested that
established that
demonstrated that .
conclusively shown that
To date,
Thus far,
Up to now,
several studies
previous studies
a number of studies
have
found
reported
shown that
linked X with Y.
indicated that
suggested that
demonstrated that
identified a link between
confirmed the effectiveness of
revealed a correlation between X and Y.
highlighted factors that are associated with
Previous
Several
studies of X
surveys of X
investigations of X
have
found
shown
revealed
reported
identified
established
demonstrated
shown significant increases in
37 | Page
Stating what is currently known about the topic
X increases when (Smith, 2015)
X is able to affect Y (Smith, 2015; Jones, 2020).
X is positively related to Y (Smith, 2015; Jones, 2020).
X is proportional to Y as expressed by the (Smith, 2015).
X is one of the most important (Smith, 2015; Jones, 2020).
X is one of the most intense reactions following Y (Jones, 2020).
A relationship exists between X and Y (Smith, 2015; Jones, 2020).
X is a principal determining factor of Y (Smith, 2015; Jones, 2020).
There is an unambiguous relationship between X and Y (Smith, 2015).
X is significantly reduced during the first months of (Smith, 2015; Jones, 2020).
X has been found to oppose the anti-inflammatory actions of Y on Z (Smith, 2019).
Previous research: highlighting negative outcomes
Previous studies have failed to
find
show
demonstrate
a (any) benefit in
a (any) link between
a (any) treatment effect.
a (any) protective effect of
a (any) correlation between
a (any) connection between
a (any) causal relationship between
a (any) consistent association between
a (any) statistically significant difference
(any) convincing evidence of
(any) benefits associated with
(any) significant differences in
(any) support for the X hypothesis.
(any) significant advantages of using
(any) significant changes in health outcomes …
(any) reliable, repeatable therapeutic effects of
Prior studies have
Recent studies have
The research to date has
not been able to
find
detect
confirm
establish
determine whether
adequately control for
convincingly show that
reproduce these findings.
account for all aspects of
replicate these associations.
confirm earlier findings showing
38 | Page
Reference to previous research: important studies
The first detailed study of X was
Smith (1960) was one of the first to examine
The first systematic study of X was reported by
Before Smith (1961), it was generally believed that
One of the most cited studies is that of Smith who sees
Smith (1952) helped to establish an explanatory model for
X is most commonly associated with the work of Jones (1960).
In one of the earliest studies in this field, Smith (1961) found
The first major fieldwork project that was undertaken in X was
The reaction between X and Y was first reported by Smith in 1872.
In their ground-breaking work in 1958, Smith and Jones established
A good summary of the classification of X has been provided in the work of
In a comprehensive literature review of X, Smith identified three significant
The electronic spectroscopy of X was first studied by Smith and Jones in 1970.
In 1985, Smith and Jones were the first of many investigators to demonstrate
X was first demonstrated experimentally by Pavlov (1927). In his seminal study …
X formed the central focus of a study by Smith (2002) in which the author found …
Perhaps the best-known study using this approach was carried out by Smith (1988).
One well-known study that is often cited in research on X is that of Smith (1972), who found
The way in which X is regulated was studied extensively by Smith and colleagues (Smith et al. 1995).
The innovative and seminal work of Smith pioneered a new approach to examining X and provided
By far
Perhaps the most
detailed
thorough
complete
influential
important
well-known
comprehensive
widely accepted
account of X is to be found in the work of
Referring to a single investigation in the past: time prominent
In 1959, a seminal article was published entitled
In 1889, Smith performed a bilateral ablation of the
In 1965, Smith published his major historic survey of
In 1975, Smith et al. published a paper in which they described
In 1984, Smith et al. made several amino acid esters of X and evaluated them as
In 1981, Smith and co-workers demonstrated that X induced in vitro resistance to
In 1990, Smith et al. demonstrated that replacement of H2O with heavy water led to
In 1990, Smith et al. reported a new and convenient synthetic procedure to obtain
In the 1950s, Smith pointed to some of the ways in which
Thirty years later, Smith (1974) reported three cases of X which
Following this period, Smith actively searched for anti-bacterial agents.
Almost 20 years ago, Jones (1995) formulated his X theory, centred around
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Referring to a single investigation in the past: investigation prominent
One longitudinal study found that
A seminal study in this area is the work of …
One study by Smith (2014) examined the trend in …
A recent study by Smith and Jones (2012) involved …
A qualitative study by Smith (2003) described how
A recent systematic literature review concluded that
Preliminary work on X was undertaken by Jones (1992).
A longitudinal study of X by Smith (2012) reports that …
A key study comparing X and Y is that of Smith (2010), in which …
The first systematic study of X was reported by Smith et al. in 1986.
Detailed examination of X by Smith and Jones (1961) showed that …
Analysis of the genes involved in X was first carried out by Smith et al. (1983).
A significant analysis and discussion on the subject was presented by Smith (1988).
The study of the structural behaviour of X was first carried out by Jones et al. (1986).
A small-scale study by Smith (2012) reached different conclusions, finding no increase in …
The study by Jones (1990) offers probably the most comprehensive empirical analysis of
In an analysis of X, Smith et al. (2015) found …
In a follow-up study, Smith et al. (2009) found that
In an investigation into X, Smith et al. (2012) found …
In a study investigating X, Smith (2004) reported that
In a comprehensive study of X, Jones (2001) found that
In a study conducted by Smith (1998), it was shown that
In studies of rats given X, Smith and colleagues found that
In a study which set out to determine X, Smith (2012) found that …
In a randomised controlled study of X, Smith (2012) reported that …
In another major study, Smith (1974) found that just over half of the …
In a recent cross-sectional study, Smith (2006b) investigated whether
In a large longitudinal study, Smith et al. (2012) investigated the incidence of X in Y.
In one well-known recent experiment, limits on X were found to be … (Smith, 2019).
To examine this issue
To better understand X,
To compare the X with Y,
To determine whether the
To further examine the role of
To further investigate the role of
Smith et al. (1984) carried out a series of experiments.
Using
Taking a(n)
historical
integrated
theoretical
longitudinal
evidence-based
cross-sectional
interdisciplinary
intergenerational
approach, Smith (1993)
showed that
demonstrated that
was able to show that
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Referring to a single investigation in the past: researcher prominent
Smiths comparative study (2012) found that …
Joness comprehensive review concluded that
Browns (1992) model of X assumes three main …
Smiths cross-country analysis (2012) showed that …
Joness (1994) review of the literature concluded that
Browns (1999) recent analysis of X provides a strong critique of
Smith et al. (2015)
reported
identified
found that
showed that
demonstrated that
Jones (2015)
compared the rate of
investigated whether
calculated the average …
labelled these subsets as …
studied the effects of X on
estimated the prevalence of
measured both components of the …
used a survey to assess the various …
undertook a series of interviews with
investigated the differential impact of…
identified parents of disabled children as …
set up a series of virtual experiments using
examined the flow of international students …
carried out a number of investigations into the …
analysed the data from 72 countries and concluded that …
interviewed 250 undergraduate students using semi-structured …
performed a similar series of experiments in the 1960s to show that …
reviewed the literature from the period and found little evidence for this …
conducted a series of trials in which he mixed X with different quantities of …
Referring to important texts in the area of interest
With its publication in 1876, Smiths XXXXX established
In 1859, the publication of XXXXX had a major impact on
In his seminal text, XXXXX, Smith devoted some attention to .
One of the most influential accounts of X comes from Smith (1986).
In Smiths landmark paper, XXXXX (1956), he adopted a Y approach to
One well-known early study that is often cited in research on X is that of
In her seminal paper entitled XXXXX, Smith (1981) identified problems with
Smith, in his comprehensive biography of X, devoted a substantial section to
Among the historiography of X, perhaps the most well-known work is that of
Herodotus, writing in the fifth century BC, provides the earliest description of
A more substantial approach to the longer-term significance of X can be found in
Smith et al., in their book XXXXX (2006), give some reliable methods for calculating
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Describing what other writers do in their published work
On the basis of these findings, Smith proposes that
In Chapter 2, Smith provides us with a number of important …
In the subsequent chapter, Smith examines the extent to which …
By drawing on the concept of X, Smith has been able to show that …
Some analysts (e.g. Jones, 2015) have attempted to draw fine distinctions between …
In their recent review of X, Smith and Jones (2015) shed light on the new challenges in
Drawing on an extensive range of sources, the authors set out the different ways in which …
Other authors (see Smith, 2013; Jones, 2015) question the usefulness of such an approach.
Smith (2018)
distinguishes
cautions against
calls our attention to
stresses the role played by
draws a distinction between
emphasises the importance of
challenges the misconception that
pinpoints a number of similarities between
identifies X, Y, and Z as the major causes of …
draws on an extensive range of sources to assess …
traces the development of X during the 19th century.
offers what may be the most complete treatment of
highlights the need to break the link between X and Y.
uses examples of these various techniques as evidence that …
mentions the special situation of Singapore as an example of …
lists three reasons why X has become so dominant. These are: …
draws our attention to distinctive categories of X often observed in …
discusses the challenges and strategies for facilitating and promoting …
questions whether mainstream schools are the best environment for …
considers whether countries work well on cross-border issues such as …
provides in-depth analysis of the work of Aristotle showing its relevance to …
defines evidence-based practice as the conscious, explicit and judicious use of …
In her review of …,
In her major study,
In her seminal article,
In her case study of ,
In her introduction to …,
In her classic critique of …,
In her historical account of ,
In her interesting analysis of ,
Smith (2012) identifies five characteristics of …
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Referring to another writers idea(s) or position
As argued by Smith (2003), X is far more cost effective, and therefore …
According to Smith (2003), preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore …
Smith (2013)
claims
argues
suggests
maintains
concludes
points out
that preventative medicine is far more cost effective than
Jones (2013)
offers
suggests
proposes
argues for
makes the case for
an explanatory theory for
Synthesising sources: supporting evidence or ideas
Similarly, Jones (2015) found that X …
This is consistent with the data obtained by
Smith (1995) makes a similar point in his study of X
In the same vein, Smith (1995) in his book XYZ notes …
This view is supported by Jones (2015) who writes that …
Along the same lines, Smith (1995) subsequently argued that
Smith argues that her data support Joness (1995) view that …
Joness (1986) work on X is complemented by Smiths (2009) study of …
Almost every paper that has been written on X includes a section relating to …
A broadly similar point has also recently been made by Johnson (2019), who
Smith (2015) sees X as
argues that
Jones (2016), like Smith, maintains that
Like Smith, Jones (2016) maintains that …
Similarly, Jones (2016) makes the case for
Likewise, Jones (2016) holds the view that …
Supporting this view, Jones (2016) writes that
Adopting a similar position, Jones (2016) argues that
In the same vein, Jones (2016), in his book XXXXX, notes …
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Synthesising sources: contrasting evidence or ideas
Other writers have argued that
Other studies have concluded that
Unlike Smith, Jones (2013) argues that …
In contrast to Smith, Jones (2013) argues that …
Smith (2010) presents an X account, whilst Jones (2011) …
While Smith (2008) focuses on X, Jones (2009) is more concerned with …
A broader perspective has been adopted by Smith (213) who argues that …
Contrary to previously published studies, Johnson et al. demonstrated the efficacy of
This result conflicts with Smiths (1965) previously mentioned study which found that
Conversely, Smith (2010) reported no significant difference in mortality between X and Y.
Some writers (e.g. Smith, 2002) have
attempted to draw distinctions between …
Others (see Jones, 2003; Brown, 2004) question
the usefulness of …
Some authors have mainly been interested in
questions concerning X (Smith, 2001; Jones …)
Others have highlighted the relevance of
Whilst Smith identifies X as the principal
dimension of Y,
Jones (2000) has taken a different approach by
focusing on
Contrasting sources with however for emphasis
Much of the available literature on X deals
with the question of …
However, Smith (2008) is much more concerned
with …
According to some studies, X is represented as
(Smith, 2012; Davis, 2014)
However, others propose (Jones, 2014; Brown,
2015)
Smith (2013) found that X accounted for
approximately 30% of Y.
Other researchers, however, who have looked at
X, have found … Jones (2010), for example, …
Smith (2002) reports that … Jones (2010) study of Y, however, found little
evidence of …
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Unlike Smith, (however), Jones
accepts
holds that
thinks that
insists that
argues that
suggests that
sees great value in
does not believe that
embraces the idea that
refuses to acknowledge
provides a positive account of
makes no distinction between
acknowledges the role played by
Referring to secondary sources
Smith (1973, cited in Jones, 2002) points out that
Smith draws on the work of Jones (1959) who suggested that
Building on the work of Jones (2000), Smith (2005) argues that
Smith (2003) revisits and updates the Jones (1996) model of X by
Smith (2000, citing Jones, 1998) points out, X has been shown to result in
The view that is supported by Smith (2003) who draws on Joness (1996) comparison of
Drawing on the work of a wide range of philosophers, Smith (2015) advances the notion that
Some ways of introducing quotations
Commenting on X, Smith (2003) argues: … …
As Jones (2014: 215) states: there are many good reasons to be sceptical.
As Smith argues: In the past, the purpose of education was to … (Smith, 2000:150).
In the final part of the Theses on Feuerbach, Marx writes: Philosophers have hitherto only
Sachs concludes: The idea of development stands today like a ruin in (Sachs, 1992a: 156).
As Smith
notes: … … … … …
writes: … … … … …
argues: … … … … …
observes: … … … … …
points out: … … … … …
reminds us: … … … … …
(Smith 2013: 23).
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Summarising the studies reviewed
Together, these studies indicate that …
Overall, these studies highlight the need for …
Considering all of this evidence, it seems that …
Collectively, these studies outline a critical role for
In all the studies reviewed here, X is recognised as
The evidence presented in this section suggests that …
The studies presented thus far provide evidence that …
Taken together, these studies support the notion that
Overall, there seems to be some evidence to indicate that …
Together these studies provide important insights into the …
All of the studies reviewed here support the hypothesis that
Two important themes emerge from the studies discussed so far:
However, such studies remain narrow in focus dealing only with
These research findings reported here consistently point towards
The evidence reviewed here seems to suggest a pertinent role for
These studies clearly indicate that there is a relationship between
In view of all that has been mentioned so far, one may suppose that …
There remain several aspects of X about which relatively little is known.
Overall, these studies
suggest that
suggest the efficacy of
suggest an inverse association between
suggest that the self-report method possesses …
suggest that both X and Y play a role in the development of
illustrate how
illustrate the role of
illustrate the flexibility of
illustrate the heterogeneity of
illustrate just how important X is in
highlight the need for …
highlight the complexity of
highlight the positive aspects of
highlight the beneficial effects of
highlight the unique relationship between
indicate a link between
consistently indicate that
clearly indicate the importance of
indicate that Xs are often important predictors of
indicate that the X has only a slight impact, if any, on
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Overall, these studies
provide mixed evidence for
provide converging evidence for
provide strong evidence for the efficacy of …
provide clear evidence for the usefulness of
provide reasonably consistent evidence of an association between …
show weak evidence of …
show that Xs may serve as important …
show a modest correlation between X and Y.
show that X is caused by a complex system of
show that a change from X to Y is usually associated with
Summarising the literature review
The previous section has shown that
In conclusion, these studies show that
The evidence reviewed here seems to suggest
To conclude this section, the literature identifies
From the studies reviewed here, it is evident that
This review has demonstrated the shortcomings of
In summary, it has been shown from this review that
Taken together, these studies support the notion that
In summary, little is known about the interrelationships between
This literature review points to the following general conclusions regarding
This section has attempted to provide a brief summary of the literature relating to
47 | Page
Describing Methods
In the Methods section of a dissertation or research article, writers give an account of how they
carried out their research. The Methods section should be clear and detailed enough for another
experienced person to repeat the research and reproduce the results. Where the methods chosen
are new, unfamiliar or perhaps even controversial, or where the intended audience is from many
disciplines, the Methods section will tend to be much more extensive. Typical stretches of text
found in this section of a research article or dissertation along with examples of the kind of language
used for these are listed below. Note that for many of the functional categories listed later in this
section, the verbs are written in the simple past tense and are in the passive voice.
Describing previously used methods
Many researchers have utilised X to measure
One of the most well-known tools for assessing
Traditionally, X has been assessed by measuring …
A number of techniques have been developed to
Different methods have been proposed to classify
X is the main non-invasive method used to determine …
Different authors have measured X in a variety of ways.
Several methods currently exist for the measurement of X.
Previous studies have based their criteria for selection on …
X is one of the most common procedures for determining
There are three main types of study design used to identify
The use of life story data has a relatively long tradition within X.
Recent advances in X methods have facilitated investigation of
There are a number of instruments available for measuring the
Recently, simpler and more rapid tests of X have been developed.
X and Y are currently the most popular methods for investigating
In most recent studies, X has been measured in four different ways.
The use of qualitative case studies is a well-established approach in …
Xs have been used in the past to investigate the mechanical properties of
Case studies have been long established in X to present detailed analysis of …
To date, various methods have been developed and introduced to measure X.
Since the 1950s, researchers have used a multitude of scientific methods to
This test is widely available and has been used in many investigational studies.
The methods for measuring X have varied somewhat across this research area.
In recent years, two different approaches have attempted to account for the
In recent years, molecular methods have been utilised for the quantification of
A variety of methods are used to assess X. Each has its advantages and drawbacks.
More recent examples of narrative studies within X can be found in the work of Smith (2010).
Two of the most common methods for estimating X are the use of Y and the measurement of Z.
X studies
Studies of X have traditionally
employed
based their approaches on
used model systems to predict
adopted functionalist perspectives
utilised a population-based approach.
relied upon participant observation as
48 | Page
Various
Different methods have been
utilised to
proposed to
employed to
assess
test for
identify
capture
quantify
measure
determine
investigate
Indicating the methodology for the current research
The present study utilises X to analyse
The current study adopts a case study approach.
A qualitative methodology is employed in this study.
A mixed methods approach is employed in this research.
This investigation utilises energy analysis and statistical methods to
A participatory qualitative research approach is employed in this study.
The current investigation utilises an array of assessment techniques to
The current study uses qualitative analysis in order to gain insights into …
It was decided that the best method to adopt for this investigation was to …
This study employs qualitative analysis and natural language processing to
This study
The current study
uses
utilises
employs
the X technique to
archival research to
an X methodology to
the conceptual tools of
a quasi-experimental design to
experimental modal analysis to
a descriptive research design to
an ethnographic approach including
a multi-method approach combining
a qualitative research approach in which
a randomised, double-blind trial involving
critical discourse analysis (CDA) to examine
interpretative phenomenological analysis to
a qualitative methodology to critically evaluate how
a mixture of quantitative and qualitative research methods to
a cluster randomization design to examine the effectiveness of
49 | Page
Giving reasons why a particular method was adopted
A major advantage of X is that
The benefit of this approach is that
The decision to use X was based on
X based methods provide a means of
X was selected for its reliability and validity.
A case study approach was used to allow a …
This method is particularly useful in studying …
A quantitative approach was employed since …
Qualitative methods offer an effective way of …
The design of the questionnaires was based on …
The X method is one of the more practical ways of …
The semi-structured approach was chosen because …
The X approach has a number of attractive features: …
The second advantage of using the multivariate method is …
One advantage of the X analysis is that it avoids the problem of …
Another advantage of using computer simulations is that it allows
Continuous sampling methods have a number of advantages over
The collaborative nature of the focus group offers another advantage
Qualitative methods can be more useful for identifying and characterising
The advantage of this particular method is that it allows us to make predictions about
Many of the distributions were not normal so non-parametric signed rank tests were run.
It was considered that quantitative measures would usefully supplement and extend the …
A case-study approach was
used
chosen
adopted
to ensure that
to help understand how
to allow a deeper insight into
to conduct this exploratory study.
to evaluate the effectiveness of
to gain a detailed understanding of
to determine the factors that affect …
to assess the management practices of
to obtain further in-depth information on the …
to capture the complexities of the phenomenon.
to provide rounded, detailed illustrations of the
X is one of the most
successful
widely used
commonly used
methods
techniques
for
(used for)
dating
assessing
gathering
collecting
evaluating
estimating
measuring
identifying
determining
50 | Page
A(n)
The
One
key
major
distinct
obvious
practical
potential
additional
important
significant
advantage of using
Z-scores
focus groups
a rating scale
secondary data
self-report data
longitudinal data
retrospective data
regression analysis
natural speech data
semi-structured interviews
a convenience sample
a case study approach
a comparative approach
a mixed method approach
a multidimensional approach
is that
Referring to the literature to justify a method or approach
In a recent article, Smith (2009) argues that case studies offer
Smith et al. (1994) identify several advantages of the case study …
Jones (2012) argues that case studies are useful when the conditions of the research
According to Smith (2011), semi-structured interviews have a wide-spread popularity in
The sensitivity of the X technique has been demonstrated in a report by Smith et al. (2011).
Jones (2006) points out that there is a role for both qualitative and quantitative approaches in
Indicating the use of an established method
The solution was then assayed for X using the Y method.
X was prepared according to the procedure used by Jones et al. (1957).
The synthesis of X was done according to the procedure of Smith (1973).
X was synthesised using the same method that was detailed for Y, using …
Samples were analysed for X as previously reported by Smith et al. (2012).
Analysis was based on the conceptual framework proposed by Smith et al. (2002).
This compound was prepared by adapting the procedure used by Jones et al. (1990).
Giving reasons why a particular method was rejected
The limitation of this approach is that
A disadvantage of many cohort studies is that
A major problem with the experimental method is that …
The main disadvantage of the experimental method is that …
The principal limitation of the experimental approach is that
However, there are certain drawbacks associated with the use of …
The disadvantage of this method is its reliance on the availability of
However, this method clearly is not valid for analysing long-term trends in
There are obvious difficulties in accepting the reliability of self-report information.
There are certain problems with the use of focus groups. One of these is that there is less …
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Explaining the provenance of the participants
A random sample of patients with X was recruited from …
Forty-seven students studying X were recruited for this study.
The 5,880 study participants were recruited from four urban communities
The project used a convenience sample of 32 first year students studying at .
The participants for this cohort were identified from a census questionnaire that
Participants were recruited from 15 clinics across X, covering urban and rural areas …
Participants from X, Y, and Z were invited to complete a survey when they enrolled in
Potential participants who lived within the radius of the centre were invited to take part in
A comparison group of 12 male subjects without any history of X was drawn from a pool of …
Describing the characteristics of the participants
The cohort was divided into two groups according to …
The sample was representative with respect to gender and
Just over half the sample (53%) was female, of whom 69% were …
Of the initial cohort of 123 students, 66 were female and 57 male.
Eligible women who matched the selection criteria were identified by
Only children aged between 10 and 15 years were included in the study.
The participants were divided into two groups based on their performance on …
Two groups of subjects were interviewed, namely X and Y. The first group were …
All of the participants were aged between 18 and 19 at the beginning of the study…
The initial sample consisted of 200 students, 75 of whom belonged to minority groups.
All were between 18 and 30 years old (mean age = 24.27 years, s. d. = 2.05), and comprised
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 17 male participants with a mean age of 38 years.
Explaining the provenance of articles for review
Literature was identified by searching
X was searched to uncover studies relating to
Additional searches were performed using the Index of
The small corpus of texts for this study was drawn from
Articles were searched from January 1965 to April 2014.
A systematic literature review was conducted of studies that …
Electronic literature searches of X and Y were performed to identify
The literature was searched using electronic databases covering the period 20002008.
Indicating criteria for selection or inclusion in the study
Publications were only included in the analysis if
To identify X, the following parameters were used:
Criteria for selecting the participants were as follows:
The area of study was chosen for its relatively small …
Primary inclusion criteria for the X participants were
A number of criteria were considered when selecting
Eligibility criteria required individuals to have received …
Five individuals were excluded from the study on the basis of …
The inclusion/exclusion criteria for all participants were as follows:
The subjects were selected on the basis of the degree of homogeneity of their …
All studies described as using some sort of X procedure were included in the analysis.
Articles were included if they reported a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials
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Describing the process: typical verbs in the passive form
All participants were sent
The data were normalised using …
Ethical approval was obtained from …
The drug was administered by ICV injection
Descriptive data were generated for all variables.
The procedures of this study were approved by …
Prompts were used as an aid to question two so that …
Data were collected using semi-structured interviews in
Participants were thanked for their time and effort and for
The experiments were run using custom software written in…
Two sets of anonymised questionnaires were completed by …
A total of 256 samples were taken from 52 boreholes (Figure 11).
The solution was washed three times with deionized water and …
Significance levels were set at the 1% level using the student t-test.
Data management and analysis were performed using SPSS 26.0 (2019).
Published studies were identified using a search strategy developed in …
Data were gathered from multiple sources at various time points during …
Injection solutions were coded by a colleague to reduce experimenter bias.
The pilot interviews were conducted informally by the trained interviewer …
Article references were searched further for additional relevant publications.
The experiments were conducted over the course of the growing period from …
Blood samples were obtained with consent, from 256 Caucasian male patients …
The participants were asked to pay close attention to the characters whenever …
Independent tests were carried out on the X and Y scores for the four years from …
This experiment was repeated under conditions in which the poor signal/noise ratio was improved.
The mean score for the two trials was subjected to multivariate analysis of variance to determine …
The participants were asked
to rate
to recall
to attend
to record
to indicate
to say whether
to comment on
to complete two tasks.
to answer a series of
whether they believed
to provide feedback on
a variety of questions about
to describe an instance when
to explain what happened during
to press the key corresponding to
a series of open-ended questions that
to describe what had happened when
to complete a 20 question survey about
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Describing the process: sequence words
To begin this process, …
The first step in this process was to …
The second method used to identify X involved …
Prior to
commencing the study, ethical clearance was sought from …
analysing the interview data, the transcripts were checked for
undertaking the investigation, ethical clearance was obtained from …
data collection, the participants received an explanation of the project.
(Immediately)
After
training, the participants were told that …
collection, the samples were shipped back to X in …
testing for the presence of antibodies, the blood was
the appliance was fitted, the patients attended X every four weeks.
On
arrival at the clinic, patients were asked to …
completion of X, the process of parameter estimation was carried out.
obtaining written informed consent from the patients, a questionnaire was
Once
the samples were extracted, it was first necessary to
the Xs were located and marked, a thin clear plastic ruler …
the positions had been decided upon, the Xs were removed from each Y and
the exposures were completed, the X was removed from the Y and placed in
Following
correction for …, X was reduced to …
conformational analysis of X, it was necessary to …
administration of X to patients, we assessed the effects on
this treatment, the samples were recovered and stored overnight at …
The participants were then shown a film individually and were asked to …
The soil was then weighed again, and this weight was recorded as …
These ratings were then made for the ten stimuli to which the subject had been exposed …
The preparation was then placed in a custom-built microfluidics chamber, covered with
When
dividing X, care was taken to …
removing X, it was important to …
inviting the participants, the purpose of the research was clearly explained.
Finally, questions were asked as to the role of …
In the follow-up phase of the study, participants were asked …
The final stage of the study comprised a with participants who
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Describing the process: using + instrument
All the work on the computer was carried out using …
Data were collected using two high spectral resolution Xs.
Semi-automated genotyping was carried out using X software and …
Qualitative data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire.
Using the X-ray and looking at the actual X, it was possible to identify …
Comparisons between the two groups were made using unrelated t-tests
The data were recorded on a digital audio recorder and transcribed using a …
Statistical significance was analysed using analysis of variance and t-tests as appropriate..
15 subjects were recruited using email advertisements requesting healthy students from …
The relationship between X and Y was examined using the Pearson correlation coefficient and
Describing the process: adverbs of manner

The resulting solution was gently mixed at room temperature for
A sample of the concentrate was then carefully injected into …
The soil was then placed in a furnace and gradually heated up to …
The vials were shaken manually to allow the soil to mix well with the water.
The medium was then aseptically transferred to a conical flask.
The tubes were accurately reweighed to six decimal places using …
Describing the process: infinitive of purpose
In order to investigate the effects of
In order to identify , the participants were asked to …
In order to help familiarise participants with , they were asked to
In order to address these ethical concerns, the following steps were taken:
In order to understand how X regulates Y, a series of transfections was performed.
To avoid
To test whether
To establish whether …,
To better understand how
To address the possibility of
To measure X, a question asking … was used.
To determine whether , the cells were incubated for …
To rule out the possibility that , the participants were …
To control for bias, measurements were carried out by another person.
To assess whether and how Xs are produced and received, we measured …
To see if the two methods gave the same measurement, the data were plotted and …
To compare the scores three weeks after initial screening, a global ANOVA F-test was used.
To enable the subjects to see the computer screen clearly, the laptop was configured with …
To increase the reliability of measures, each X was tested twice with a 4-minute break between …
The vials were capped with X to prevent …
The process was repeated several times in order to remove …
In an attempt to make each interviewee feel as comfortable as possible, the interviewer …
The interview schedule comprised structured and open questions to identify and explore
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Describing the process: expressing purpose with for
For the next two questions, a Likert scale was used.
For the purpose of analysis, two segments were extracted from each …
For the purpose of height measurement, participants were asked to stand …
For the estimation of protein concentration, 100 L of protein sample was mixed with …
Describing questionnaire design
The first question elicited information on
Seven questions, adapted from X, assessed
All survey questions utilised a 5-point Likert scale.
Using a 5-point Likert scale, participants were asked
A short questionnaire was designed to ascertain the participants’
The questionnaire was designed to measure the following constructs:
Participants were asked to respond using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from
The questions asked participants to rate how strongly they agreed with each statement.
The study began with two open-ended survey questions that asked participants to indicate
The questionnaire asked participants to complete three open-ended questions that asked about
The first question was designed to
find out
gauge how much
ascertain whether
identify the types of
test participants knowledge of
measure the students’ ability to explain
elicit a simple answer to a complex question about
Question 2
The third question
The final question
asked participants
to list
to rank
to provide
to describe
to reflect on
to choose between
to indicate whether
to rate how much they liked
Question 2 asked participants to indicate
whether
which of three
where and when
the extent to which they
what they liked best about
how often they think about
what their preferred X is for
what percentage of the time
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Q2 asked participants to rate
themselves as
the intensity of
their interest in
the importance of
their perception of
the extent to which
how frequently they
their level of agreement with
how strongly they agreed with the statement
on a 5-point Likert scale.
Describing the process: statistical procedures
The data were normalised using …
A p value <0.05 was considered significant.
Descriptive data were generated for all variables.
Reliability was calculated using Cronbachs alpha.
All analyses were carried out using SPSS, version 26.
Non-parametric tests were used to compare the number of
Independent sample t-tests were carried out to assess whether
Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software (version 26).
Significance levels were set at the 1% level using the student t-test.
Data management and analysis were performed using SPSS 26.0 (2019).
A Pearson correlation analysis was conducted in order to assess the strength of
An independent t-test was carried out on each of the variables to determine whether
The mean score for the two trials was subjected to multivariate analysis of variance to determine …
An independent t-test was
run
used
conducted
performed
carried out
to
assess whether
test the hypothesis that
compare the mean scores of
determine whether there was a difference
test for differences between the two groups.
test whether any differences existed between
Indicating methodological problems or limitations
In particular, the analysis of X was problematic.
In observational studies, there is a potential for bias from
The small size of the dataset meant that it was not possible to …
Further data collection is required to determine exactly how X affects Y.
Another major source of uncertainty is in the method used to calculate X.
In this investigation there are several sources for error. The main error is …
It was not possible to investigate the significant relationships of X and Y further because
The responses relating to X were subjective and were therefore susceptible to recall bias.
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Reporting Results
The standard approach to this section of a research article or dissertation is to present and describe
the results in a systematic and detailed way. When reporting qualitative results, the researcher will
highlight and comment on the themes that emerge from the analysis. These comments will often
be illustrated with excerpts from the raw data. In text based studies, this may comprise quotations
from the primary sources. In quantitative studies, the results section is likely to consist of tables and
figures, and writers comment on the significant data shown in these. This often takes the form of
the location or summary statement, which identifies the table or figure and indicates its content,
and a highlighting statement or statements, which point out and describe the relevant or significant
data. All figures and tables should be numbered and given a title.
More elaborate commentary on the results is normally restricted to the Discussion section. In
research articles, however, authors may comment extensively on their results as they are presented,
and it is not uncommon for the Results section to be combined with the Discussion section under
the heading: Results and Discussion.
Referring back to the research aims or procedures
The first set of questions aimed to
To compare the difference between
The purpose of Experiment 3 was to
Simple statistical analysis was used to …
The next question asked the informants
To assess X, the Y questionnaire was used.
Changes in X and Y were compared using …
The third research question was whether
Regression analysis was used to predict the …
To distinguish between these two possibilities, …
The first set of analyses examined the impact of …
The correlation between X and Y was tested using
T-tests were used to analyse the relationship between …
The average scores of X and Y were compared in order to …
In order to assess Z, repeated-measures ANOVAs were used.
Nine items on the questionnaire measured the extent to which …
To compare the scores three weeks after initial screening, a global ANOVA F-test was used.
The Pearson product moment correlation coefficient was used to determine the relationship
Transition: moving to the next result
If we now turn to …
Further analysis shows that …
Further statistical tests revealed …
Further analysis of the data reveals
A comparison of the two results reveals …
Turning now to the experimental evidence on …
Comparing the two results, it can be seen that …
The next section of the survey was concerned with …
In the final part of the survey, respondents were asked …
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Referring to data in a table or chart
Table 1
Figure 1
shows
displays
presents
provides
compares
an overview of …
the experimental data on X.
the summary statistics for …
the breakdown of X according to …
the median and range of scores for each group.
the intercorrelations among the nine measures of X.
the results obtained from the preliminary analysis of X.
the scatter diagram of the relationship between X and Y.
As shown in Figure 1,
As can be seen from the table (above),
Looking at Figure 3, it is apparent that
From the graph above we can see that
It can be seen from the data in Table 1 that
the X group reported significantly more Y than
The table below illustrates
The pie chart above shows
The top half of the table shows
The bottom half of the table shows
the proportion of different categories of …
Means and standard deviations of X
The results of the correlational analysis
The themes identified in these responses
The results obtained from the preliminary analysis of X
are shown
are set out
are displayed
are presented
are summarised
can be seen
can be compared
in Table 1.
in Figure 1.
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Highlighting significant data in a table or chart
What stands out in the table is
Closer inspection of the table shows
The X in Figure 2 is interesting because
It is apparent from this table that very few …
The most interesting aspect of this graph is
In Fig.10 there is a clear trend of decreasing
What is striking about the figures in this table is
An inspection of the data in Table 1.5 reveals that
What is interesting about the data in this table is that …
The differences between X and Y are highlighted in Table 4.
From the chart, it can be seen that by far the greatest demand is for …
From this data, we can see that Study 2 resulted in the lowest value of …
This table is quite revealing in several ways. First, unlike the other tables …
From the data in Figure 9, it is apparent that the length of time left between …
Data from this table can be compared with the data in Table 4.6 which shows …
As Table III shows, there is a significant difference (t = -2.15, p = 0.03) between the two groups.
What stands out in this
table
chart
figure
is the growth of
is the high rate of
is the dominance of
is the wide range of
is the rapid decrease in
is the general pattern of
is the difference between
is the wide disparity between
is the markedly lower rates of
Stating a positive result
The mean score for X was …
An increase in X was detected.
A two-way ANOVA revealed that …
Participants ratings of X indicated
On average, Xs were shown to have …
Strong evidence of X was found when …
This result is significant at the p = 0.05 level.
The results, as shown in Table 1, indicate that …
A positive correlation was found between X and Y.
There was a significant positive correlation between …
The difference between the X and Y groups was significant.
There was a significant difference between the two conditions …
There were small but significant negative correlations between
A significant difference was found between X1 and X2, t(11) = 2.906, p<0.01.
Respondents who reported low levels of X also reported significantly lower levels of Y.
There is a moderate correlation (r2 = 0.60, significant at less than 1% probability) between
60 | Page
Stating a negative result
No increase in X was detected.
No difference greater than X was observed.
No significant differences were found between …
None of these differences were statistically significant.
No significant difference between the two groups was evident.
No significant reduction in X was found compared with placebo.
No evidence was found for non-linear associations between X and Y.
No significant correlation was found between X scores and the Y scores (p = .274)
X appeared to be unaffected by Y.
Only trace amounts of X were detected in …
There was no evidence that X has an influence on
The results of this experiment show no clear-cut pattern of
The Chi-square test did not show any significant differences between …
There was no significant difference between the groups with respect to …
Overall, X did not affect males and females differently in these measures.
A clear benefit of X in the prevention of Y could not be identified in this analysis.
T-tests found no significant differences in mean scores on the X and Y subscales.
There was no
increase of X associated with …
significant difference between …
evidence that X has an influence on
observed difference in the number of
Reporting positive and negative reactions
X occurred with successive increases in Y.
With successive increases in intensity of the X, the Y moved further to …
Following the addition of X, a significant increase (p<0.05) in the Y was recorded.
Combining X with Y did not produce
Stimulation of X with Y did not increase the …
When X cells were stimulated with Y, no significant difference in Z was detected.
No statistically significant difference
correlation
between the means was found.
between the two groups was evident.
was observed between X and Y groups.
was found between X score and the Y scores.
between the mean scores of these groups was evident.
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Highlighting interesting or surprising results
Interestingly, the X was observed to …
This result is somewhat counterintuitive.
Interestingly, this correlation is related to …
The more surprising correlation is with the …
Surprisingly, only a minority of respondents
The most surprising aspect of the data is in the …
The correlation between X and Y is interesting because …
The most striking result to emerge from the data is that …
Interestingly, there were also differences in the ratios of …
Interestingly, a significant interaction of X and Y was also observed.
The single most striking observation to emerge from the data comparison was …
This is a/an (rather)
surprising
significant
interesting
remarkable
unexpected
disappointing
result.
outcome.
Surveys and interviews: Reporting response rates
The overall response to the survey was poor.
Thirty-two individuals returned the questionnaires.
The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months.
Of the study population, 90 subjects completed and returned the questionnaire.
Of 150 potential participants who were sent invitations, 80 agreed to take part in
By the end of the survey period, data had been collected from 64 individuals, 23 of whom were
There were 53 responses to the question: …?
Respondents were asked to indicate whether …
The total number of responses for this question was …
The overall response to this question was very positive.
Respondents were asked to suggest other reasons for …
In response to the question: …?, a range of responses was elicited.
This section of the questionnaire required respondents to give information on …
One
A further
An important
issue
theme
factor
problem
concept
category
that emerged
from the data was
from the interviews was
during the pilot interviews was
at the initial stages of the analytic process was
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Surveys and interviews: Reporting proportions
Over half of those surveyed reported that …
A minority of participants (17%) indicated that …
70% of those who were interviewed indicated that ….
Almost two-thirds of the participants (64%) said that ….
The majority of those who responded to this item felt that …
When asked whether …, 90% of the respondents reported that …
Just over half of those who answered this question reported that …
In response to Question 1, most of those surveyed indicated that …
When the participants were asked , the majority commented that …
Of the 148 patients who completed the questionnaire, just over half indicated that …
Surveys and interviews: Reporting themes
Another reported problem was
Opinions differed as to whether
Concerns were expressed about
A number of issues were identified
A variety of perspectives were expressed
These views surfaced mainly in relation to
Concerns regarding X were more widespread.
There was a sense of X amongst interviewees.
Five broad themes emerged from the analysis.
A common view amongst interviewees was that
One concern expressed regarding X was whether
This theme came up for example in discussions of
The themes of X and Y recurred throughout the dataset.
Particularly revealing is how the participants described
Two discrete reasons emerged from this. First … Second
Two divergent and often conflicting discourses emerged
Of the five themes, X was the most frequently coded theme in the data.
Issues related to X were not particularly prominent in the interview data.
The responses to Question 1 could be grouped into the following themes:
A recurrent theme in the interviews was a sense amongst interviewees that
Surveys and interviews: Introducing excerpts from interview data
As one interviewee said: …
As one interviewee put it: …
One informant reported that …
The comment below illustrates …
One participant commented: …
For example, one interviewee said: …
In one case, the participant thought that
Another interviewee, when asked , said: …
Other responses to this question included: …
Another interviewee alluded to the notion of …
Talking about this issue an interviewee said: …
Commenting on X, one of the interviewees said
One individual stated that … And another commented …
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Surveys and interviews: Reporting participants views
It was suggested that …
One interviewee argued that
There were some suggestions that …
In all cases, the informants reported that
In their accounts of the events surrounding …
There were some negative comments about …
The participants on the whole demonstrated …
Some felt that , while others considered that
Some interviewees argued that , while others
This view was echoed by another informant who …
Whilst a minority mentioned that, all agreed that
Only a small number of respondents indicated that …
A small number of those interviewed suggested that ….
For a small number of participants X was the reason for
The majority of participants agreed with the statement that
When asked about X, the participants were unanimous in the view that
One
Some
A few
A number of
The majority of
A small number of
The overwhelming majority of
informant(s)
participant(s)
interviewee(s)
felt that
said that
stated that
argued that
reported that
indicated that
proposed that
remarked that
suggested that
commented that
referred to
emphasised
attributed X to
explicitly referred to
questioned whether
expressed a desire for
were reluctant to discuss
offered an explanation for
expressed concerns about
were particularly critical of
agreed with the statement that
welcomed the opportunity to focus on
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Summarising the results section
These results suggest that …
The results also indicate that
Overall, these results indicate that …
In summary, these results show that …
In summary, for the informants in this study, …
What emerges from the results reported here is that
Together these results provide important insights into …
Taken together, these results suggest that there is an association between …
The results in this chapter indicate that … The next chapter, therefore, moves on to discuss the …
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Discussing Findings
The term discussion has a variety of meanings in English. In academic writing, however, it usually
refers to two types of activity: a) considering both sides of an issue, or question before reaching a
conclusion; b) considering the results of research and the implications of these. Discussion sections
in dissertations and research articles are probably the most complex sections in terms of their
elements. They normally centre around a ‘statement of result’ or an important ‘finding’. As there is
usually more than one result, discussion sections are often structured into a series of discussion
cycles. The most common elements in these cycles, and some of the language that is typically
associated with them, are listed below. Note that when offering explanations and suggesting
implications the language used is very tentative or cautious (refer to the section entitled Expressing
Caution).
Providing background information: reference to the literature
A number of recent studies
Several reports have shown that
As mentioned in the literature review, …
Prior studies that have noted the importance of …
Very little was found in the literature on the question of …
Previous studies evaluating X observed inconsistent results on whether
A strong relationship between X and Y has been reported in the literature.
In reviewing the literature, no data was found on the association between X and Y.
Providing background information: reference to the purpose of the study
One of the aims of this study was to
The third question in this research was …
An initial objective of the project was to identify …
This study set out to assess the importance of X in …
The first question in this study sought to determine …
It was hypothesised that participants with a history of …
The present study was designed to determine the effect of …
With respect to the first research question, it was found that
Restating the result or one of several results
This study found that
One interesting finding is …
The current study found that …
Another important finding is that …
The most important result was that …
In this study, Xs were found to cause …
The results of this study show/indicate that …
On the question of X, this study found that …
This experiment did not detect any evidence for …
The most obvious finding to emerge from the analysis is that …
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(Perhaps) the most
striking
important
disturbing
significant
interesting
compelling
unexpected
clinically relevant
finding is
Indicating an unexpected outcome
What is surprising is that …
Surprisingly, X was found to …
One unanticipated result was that …
What is curious about this result is that
Surprisingly, no differences were found in …
This finding was unexpected and suggests that …
One unexpected finding was the extent to which
It is somewhat surprising that no X was noted in this condition …
The weak association of X with Y is interesting, but not surprising.
It is interesting to compare Figure 4 with Figure 2 in Smith (2019) that shows
One surprising variable that was found to be significantly associated with X was
These findings are somewhat surprising given the fact that other research shows
Contrary to expectations, this study did not find a significant difference between …
However, the observed difference between X and Y in this study was not significant.
However, the ANOVA (one way) showed that these results were not statistically significant.
It was surprising that the X group scores did not differ significantly from those of the Y group.
Comparing the result: supporting previous findings
This study confirms that X is associated with …
This finding was also reported by Smith et al. (1989).
This finding is consistent with that of Smith (2000) who
Comparison of the findings with those of other studies confirms
This also accords with our earlier observations, which showed that …
These results reflect those of Smith et al. (1992) who also found that
Increased activation in the X in this study corroborates these earlier findings.
These results corroborate the findings of a great deal of the previous work in …
This finding broadly supports the work of other studies in this area linking X with Y.
In accordance with the present results, previous studies have demonstrated that …
It is encouraging to compare this figure with that found by Jones (1993) who found that …
Consistent with the literature, this research found that participants who reported using X also
There are similarities between the attitudes expressed by X in this study and those described by
This study supports evidence from clinical observations (e.g. Smith, 1997; Jones et al., 1994) that
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These results
further support the idea of …
confirm the association between …
are consistent with data obtained in
match those observed in earlier studies.
are in line with those of previous studies.
are in agreement with those obtained by
are in accord with recent studies indicating that
agree with the findings of other studies, in which …
seem to be consistent with other research which found …
mirror those of the previous studies that have examined …
are consistent with those of Smith and Jones (2015) who …
are in keeping with previous observational studies, which …
support previous research into this area which links X and Y.
are in agreement with Smiths (1999) findings which showed …
corroborate the ideas of Smith and Jones (2008), who suggested that …
Comparing the result: contradicting previous findings
This study has been unable to demonstrate that …
However, this result has not previously been described.
This outcome is contrary to that of Smith et al. (2001) who found
This finding is contrary to previous studies which have suggested that
In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of X was detected.
The yields in this investigation were higher compared to those of other studies.
However, the findings of the current study do not support the previous research.
Smith et al. (1999) showed that . This differs from the findings presented here
The overall level was found to be 15%, lower than that of previously reported levels.
It has been suggested that (Smith et al., 2002). This does not appear to be the case.
The levels observed in this investigation are far below those observed by Smith et al. (2007).
These results differ from Xs 2003 estimate of Y, but they are broadly consistent with earlier …
Although, these results differ from some published studies (Smith, 1992; Jones, 1996), they are
consistent with those of …
Offering an explanation for the findings
A possible explanation for this might be that …
Another possible explanation for this is that …
This result may be explained by the fact that …
There are, however, other possible explanations.
These relationships may partly be explained by
There are several possible explanations for this result.
Several factors could explain this observation. Firstly,
These differences can be explained in part by the proximity of X and Y.
A possible explanation for these results may be the lack of adequate …
These factors may explain the relatively good correlation between X and Y.
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This inconsistency may be due to …
These results are likely to be related to
This discrepancy could be attributed to …
It seems possible that these results are due to …
This rather contradictory result may be due to …
The observed increase in X could be attributed to
It is difficult to explain this result, but it might be related to …
This finding could have been generated by misclassification bias since
Another possible alternative explanation of our findings is that they are due to
The possible interference of X cannot be ruled out.
It may be that these participants benefitted from …
Differences between X and Y may have influenced …
These possible sources of error could have affected
There are two likely causes for the differences between …
This result may reflect differences in the size, quality and
The reason for this is not clear but it may have something to do with …
The observed correlation between X and Y might be explained in this way: …
Since this difference has not been found elsewhere it is probably not due to …
These conflicting experimental results could be associated with the nature of the
It is possible that these unmeasured variables could account for some aspects of the results.
This (rather)
intriguing
interesting
surprising
unexpected
disappointing
result
finding
could be due to
may be related to
might be a result of
could be attributed to
can be explained by X.
might be explained by the fact that
Advising cautious interpretation of the findings
Another source of uncertainty is
Additional uncertainty arises from
A note of caution is due here since
We cannot exclude the possibility that
There are several possible sources of error.
These findings cannot be extrapolated to all
These findings may be somewhat limited by
The possible interference of X cannot be ruled out.
These data must be interpreted with caution because …
It could be argued that the positive results were due to
Several sources of error may have influenced these results.
These results therefore need to be interpreted with caution.
It is important to bear in mind the possible bias in these responses.
This limitation means that study findings need to be interpreted cautiously.
Although exclusion of X did not …, these results should be interpreted with caution.
However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be
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It is possible that these results
are due to
are limited to
are only valid for
do not represent the
have been confounded by …
may have been skewed by
might be biased because of
could be a statistical anomaly.
were influenced by the lack of
merely reflect a selection effect.
may underestimate the role of
are not a true representation of
underestimate the true prevalence of
might not be applicable to other groups
are an artefact of our experimental design.
are biased, given the self-reported nature of
will not be reproducible on a wide scale across
may not be generalisable to a broader range of …
Suggesting general hypotheses
These findings suggest that …
It is possible, therefore, that …
It can thus be suggested that …
In general, therefore, it seems that …
The findings reported here suggest that
According to these data, we can infer that
It is possible/likely/probable therefore that …
The present study raises the possibility that …
Hence, it could conceivably be hypothesised that …
This observation may support the hypothesis that
It may be the case therefore that these variations …
It is therefore likely that such connections exist between …
The value of X suggests that a weak link may exist between …
These results provide further support for the hypothesis that …
Therefore, X could be a major factor, if not the only one, causing …
It is possible to hypothesise that these conditions are less likely to occur in …
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Commenting on the findings
These findings are rather disappointing.
However, these results were not very encouraging.
The test was successful as it was able to identify students who …
The present results are significant in at least two major respects.
Unfortunately, these findings are rather difficult to interpret because
This is a/an
These are
key
useful
positive
valuable
troubling
surprising
important
significant
reassuring
interesting
remarkable
encouraging
disappointing
result(s).
finding(s).
This is a
These are
rather
somewhat
particularly
useful
troubling
surprising
reassuring
remarkable
encouraging
disappointing
result(s).
finding(s).
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Noting implications of the findings
These findings suggest that …
It can therefore be assumed that the …
This provides some explanation as to why
An implication of this is the possibility that …
One of the issues that emerges from these findings is …
These initial results are suggestive of a link between X and Y.
Some of the issues emerging from this finding relate specifically to …
This combination of findings provides some support for the conceptual premise that …
These results
findings
suggest that
provide support for
cast some doubt on
have implications for
support the idea that
challenge the notion that
might further indicate that
may help us to understand …
may be taken to indicate that
reveal something about the nature of
are representative of an emerging trend in
provide some tentative initial evidence that
have important implications for developing …
may reflect differences in the size, quality and
add to a growing body of evidence that suggests
draw our attention to the importance of considering
raise intriguing questions regarding the nature and extent of …
suggest that the lowering of X may reduce hospital admissions for
These findings
may
will
might
should
help us to
help others to
shape
design
predict
develop
prioritise
explain why
find new ways of
better understand
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Suggestions for future work
This is an important issue for future research.
Research questions that could be asked include …
Several questions remain unanswered at present.
Despite these promising results, questions remain.
There are still many unanswered questions about
Further work is required to establish the viability of…
These results warrant further investigation with a larger
Another potentially fruitful avenue for future research is
Further research should be undertaken to investigate the …
A further study with more focus on X is therefore suggested.
There is abundant room for further progress in determining
Future studies on the current topic are therefore recommended.
In further research, the use of these data as X could be a means of …
To develop a full picture of X additional studies will be needed that …
In future investigations, it might be possible to use a different X in which …
A comprehensive review based on more reliable study designs is recommended.
Further studies, which take these variables into account, will need to be undertaken.
However, more research on this topic needs to be undertaken before the association between X and
Y is more clearly understood.
Further
work is
research is
studies are
investigations are
needed to
required to
identify the
establish how
confirm whether
assess the risks of
ascertain whether
determine whether
examine the effects of
evaluate the impact of
address the following questions:
explore the mechanisms behind
assess the longer-term impact of
confirm and validate these findings.
identify or develop drugs that can
assess the competing therapies for
develop reliable analytical methods for …
shed light on the mechanism underlying …
provide greater insight into the effects of
gain a better understanding of the possible
establish the effectiveness of treatment with
better understand the mechanisms underlying
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Writing Conclusions
Conclusions are shorter sections of academic texts which usually serve two functions. The first is to
summarise and bring together the main areas covered in the writing, which might be called looking
back; and the second is to give a final comment or judgement on this. The final comment may also
include making suggestions for improvement and speculating on future directions.
In dissertations and research papers, conclusions tend to be more complex and will also include
sections on the significance of the findings and on recommendations for future work. In some
research papers, the conclusion is not presented separately from the discussion section; the two
sections may be combined. However, separate conclusions are nearly always expected for
dissertations and essays.
Referring back to the purpose of the paper or study
This study set out to
This paper has argued that …
This essay has discussed the reasons for …
In this investigation, the aim was to assess …
The aim of the present research was to examine
The purpose of the current study was to determine …
The main goal of the current study was to determine …
This project was undertaken to design … and evaluate …
The present study was designed to determine the effect of …
The second aim of this study was to investigate the effects of
Returning to the question posed at the beginning of this study, it is now possible to state that …
This study set out to
predict which
establish whether
determine whether
develop a model for
assess the effects of
investigate impact of
better understand the
find a new method for
evaluate how effective
assess the feasibility of
test the hypothesis that
explore the influence of
gain a better understanding of
objectively measure and assess
examine the relationship between
compare the two ways of treating
critically examine the ways in which
evaluate a new method of measuring
provide the first systematic account of
understand the views and experiences of
review in detail the available information on
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Summarising the main research findings
This study has identified
This study has shown that …
The findings clearly indicate that
The research has also shown that …
The second major finding was that …
These experiments confirmed that
X made no significant difference to
This study has found that generally …
The investigation of X has shown that …
The results of this investigation show that …
X, Y and Z emerged as reliable predictors of …
Multiple regression analysis revealed that the …
The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that …
The relevance of X is clearly supported by the current findings.
One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that …
Suggesting implications for what is already known
In general, therefore, it seems that …
The results of this study indicate that …
The findings of this study suggest that …
Taken together, these results suggest that …
An implication of this is the possibility that …
The evidence from this study suggests that …
Overall, this study strengthens the idea that
The current data highlight the importance of
The findings of this research provide insights for
The results of this research support the idea that …
These data suggest that X can be achieved through …
The theoretical implications of these findings are unclear.
The principal theoretical implication of this study is that
This study has raised important questions about the nature of
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study …
Taken together, these findings suggest a role for X in promoting Y.
The findings of this investigation complement those of earlier studies.
These findings have significant implications for the understanding of how
Although this study focuses on X, the findings may well have a bearing on …
These findings raised important theoretical issues that have a bearing on the …
This study has examined
the role of
the impact of
the nature of
the concept of
the differences between
the relationship between
the peer reviewed literature on
the factors which are thought to contribute to
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Explaining the significance of the findings or contribution of the study
The findings will be of interest to
This thesis has provided a deeper insight into
The findings reported here shed new light on
The understanding gained here should help to
The study contributes to our understanding of
These results add to the rapidly expanding field of
The contribution of this study has been to confirm
Before this study, evidence of X was purely anecdotal.
This project is the first comprehensive investigation of
The insights gained from this study may be of assistance to
This work contributes to existing knowledge of X by providing …
This is the largest study so far documenting a delayed onset of …
Prior to this study it was difficult to make predictions about how
The analysis of X undertaken here, has extended our knowledge of …
The empirical findings in this study provide a new understanding of …
This paper contributes to recent historiographical debates concerning
This approach will prove useful in expanding our understanding of how
By providing a conceptual model, this work offers a novel understanding of
This new understanding should help to improve predictions of the impact of
This is the first report on X from a nationally representative cohort of patients.
The methods used for this X may be applied to other Xs elsewhere in the world.
The X that we have identified therefore assists in our understanding of the role of …
This is the first study of substantial duration which examines associations between
The findings from this study make several contributions to the current literature. First,
These findings contribute in several ways to our understanding of X and provide a basis for
This study
The present study
lays the groundwork for future research into
provides the first comprehensive assessment of
establishes a quantitative framework for detecting
adds to the growing body of research that indicates
is the only empirical investigation into the impact of
has been one of the first attempts to thoroughly examine
appears to be the first study to compare the experiences of
has gone some way towards enhancing our understanding of …
has confirmed the findings of Smith et al. (2001) which found that…
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These findings
illustrate how
could be used to help
are important because
are particularly relevant for
provide insights into whether
enhance our understanding of …
provide additional evidence for
will help other researchers design
highlight the potential usefulness of
add to a growing body of literature on …
provide strong empirical confirmation that
represent a major breakthrough in the way
provide important insights into the role of
make several contributions to the current literature.
are relevant to both practitioners and policy-makers.
will be of broad use to the scientific and biomedical communities.
This is the first study
to identify
to show that
to investigate
to test the effects of
to firmly establish that
to provide evidence for
to reveal the presence of …
to investigate the effect of …
to use objective measures to
to report an association between
to integrate modelling approaches intended to
that has used
that has found
that has revealed
that has measured
that has presented evidence for
that has systematically analysed
that has investigated the effects of
that has documented the impact of
that has evaluated the effectiveness of
that has shown a clear-cut positive effect of
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This research
The present study
extends our knowledge of …
has demonstrated, for the first time, that …
will serve as a base for future studies and …
should prove to be particularly valuable to …
makes several noteworthy contributions to …
has offered a framework for the exploration of …
has provided additional evidence with respect to …
has several practical applications. Firstly, it points to …
has shed a contemporary light on the contentious issue of
is important in furthering our understanding of the role of
confirms previous findings and contributes additional evidence that …
Prior to this study
investigation
X was unknown.
it was difficult to
there were no data on
there was uncertainty about whether
it had not been possible to determine
no clear evidence of X had been reported.
little was known about the characteristics of
little evidence existed to support the idea that …
the influence of X on Y had not been thoroughly investigated.
Commenting on the strengths of the current study
A key strength of the present study was the …
The main strength of this study is the exclusion of
One strength of this study is the high rate of follow-up,
The key strengths of this study are its long duration and …
The strengths of the study included the in-depth analysis of
Although the findings should be interpreted with caution, this study has several strengths
One of the strengths of this study is that it represents a comprehensive examination of the whole
Introducing the limitations of the current study
A number of limitations need to be noted regarding the present study.
Study limitations make an overall conclusion about X extremely difficult.
The findings in this report are subject to at least three limitations. First, …
Finally, a number of important weaknesses need to be considered. First, …
With regard to the research methods, some limitations need to be acknowledged.
The generalisability of these results is subject to certain limitations. For instance, …
Several limitations to this pilot study need to be acknowledged. The sample size is …
The present study was subject to a number of potential methodological weaknesses.
The project was limited in several ways. First, the project used a convenience sample that
Although the study has successfully demonstrated that …, it has certain limitations in terms of …
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Detailing specific limitations
A limitation of this study is that
Being limited to X, this study lacks
The major limitation of this study is the …
The interference of X cannot be ruled out.
One issue with the current study was that
X makes these findings less generalisable to …
Thirdly, the study did not evaluate the use of …
The generalisability of these findings is limited
It is unfortunate that the study did not include …
The scope of this study was limited in terms of …
However, these findings are limited by the use of
The most important limitation lies in the fact that …
The main weakness of this study was the paucity of …
Since the study was limited to X, it was not possible to ..
An additional uncontrolled factor is the possibility that …
A limitation of using this kind of data is that it precludes …
It was not possible to assess X; therefore, it is unknown if
An issue that was not addressed in this study was whether…
An arguable weakness is the arbitrariness in our definition of …
The study did not control for the possible confounding effects of
The principal limitation of this analysis was the variance in the design of
A potential source of bias for the study is the influence the researcher had upon
The responses relating to X were subjective and were therefore susceptible to recall bias.
The sample was nationally representative of X but would tend to miss people who were …
One source of weakness in this study which could have affected the measurements of X was …
The lack of X in the sample adds further caution regarding the generalisability of these findings.
With a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be transferable to …
This
The current
The present
study
research
investigation
is limited by …
has only examined …
has not been able to establish
has only considered the context of
has not been able to confirm earlier
was unable to analyse these variables.
was not specifically designed to evaluate factors related to
The current study is limited by …
the absence of
the possible effect of
the small number of cases.
the relatively small sample.
the fact that it only surveyed
by the fact that it was restricted to
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However, these results may not be applicable to
all types of
all situations.
other species.
patients who
all clinical settings.
The wider population.
other groups within
organisations which
Another source of
uncertainty
is
has been
the role of
the estimate for
the assumption that
the variation of X over time.
associated with changes in
the possibility of measurement errors in
Acknowledging limitation(s) whilst stating a finding or contribution
Notwithstanding these limitations, the study suggests that …
Whilst this study did not confirm X, it did partially substantiate …
Despite its exploratory nature, this study offers some insight into …
In spite of its limitations, the study certainly adds to our understanding of the …
Notwithstanding the relatively limited sample, this work offers valuable insights into
Although the current study is based on a small sample of participants, the findings suggest …
Making recommendations for further research work
The question raised by this study is
The study should be repeated using …
This would be a fruitful area for further work.
Several questions still remain to be answered.
A natural progression of this work is to analyse …
More research using controlled trials is needed to
More broadly, research is also needed to determine …
A further study could assess the long-term effects of …
What is now needed is a cross-national study involving …
Considerably more work will need to be done to determine …
The precise mechanism of X in insects remains to be elucidated.
These findings provide the following insights for future research: …
Large randomised controlled trials could provide more definitive evidence.
This research has thrown up many questions in need of further investigation.
A greater focus on X could produce interesting findings that account more for …
The issue of X is an intriguing one which could be usefully explored in further research.
If the debate is to be moved forward, a better understanding of X needs to be developed.
I suggest that before X is introduced, a study similar to this one should be carried out on …
More information on X would help us to establish a greater degree of accuracy on this matter.
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Further
work needs to be done to establish whether …
studies need to be carried out in order to validate …
studies regarding the role of X would be worthwhile.
experimental investigations are needed to estimate …
work is needed to fully understand the implications of
research is required to establish the therapeutic efficiency of
modelling work will have to be conducted in order to determine
investigation and experimentation into X is strongly recommended.
experiments, using a broader range of Xs, could shed more light on
research in other Xs is, therefore, an essential next step in confirming
Further research
might explore
could usefully explore how
should focus on determining
is required to determine whether
in this field would be of great help in
should be carried out to establish the
should be undertaken to explore how
on these questions would be a useful way of …
needs to examine more closely the links between X and Y.
could also be conducted to determine the effectiveness of
More research is needed
is required
to account for …
in order to determine which
to determine the efficacy and safety of …
to examine the long-term efficacy and safety of
to better understand when implementation ends and …
to develop a deeper understanding of the relationships between
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It would be interesting to assess the effects of …
It is recommended that further research be undertaken in the following areas:
It would be interesting to compare experiences of individuals within the same
It is suggested that the association of these factors is investigated in future studies.
A future study investigating X would be very interesting.
In terms of directions for future research, further work could …
In the future, it will be important to explore the potential use of
Another possible area of future research would be to investigate why …
A number of possible future studies using the same experimental set up are apparent.
In terms of future work, it would be interesting to repeat the experiments described here using
Further research is
studies are
needed
required
to better
understand
why
how
the nature of
the causes of
the impact of
the reasons for
the influence of
the extent to which
the role that X plays in
how X is associated with
the risks associated with
the underlying causes of
the possible link between …
the relationship between
the discrepancies between
the mechanisms underlying
the effectiveness and safety of
the complex linkages between
the complex interaction between
the complex association between
Future studies should
include
focus on
target specific
clarify whether
attempt to identify
assess the impact of …
explore the effects of
seek to minimise bias by
investigate the degree to which
concentrate on the investigation of …
address the questions raised by this research.
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Implications and/or recommendations for practice or policy
Other types of X could include: a), b) …
Greater efforts are needed to ensure …
There is, therefore, a definite need for …
A second broad recommendation is that
Provision of X will enhance Y and reduce Z.
Another important practical implication is that …
Moreover, more X should be made available to …
The challenge now is to fabricate Xs that contain
Unless governments adopt X, Y will not be attained.
These findings suggest several courses of action for …
A reasonable approach to tackle this issue could be to …
This particular research finding also points to the need for
Continued efforts are needed to make X more accessible to …
These findings have implications within the clinical setting for
The findings of this study have a number of practical implications.
There are a number of important changes which need to be made.
Management to enhance bumble-bee populations might involve …
This information can be used to develop targeted interventions aimed at …
This study suggests that X should be avoided by people who are prone to
A key policy priority should therefore be to plan for the long-term care of …
Taken together, these findings do not support strong recommendations to …
Ensuring appropriate systems, services and support for X should be a priority for
The findings of this study have a number of important implications for future practice.
An implication of these findings is that both X and Y should be taken into account when …
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General Functions of Academic Writing
84 | Page
Being Cautious
One of the most noticeable stylistic aspects of academic communication is the tendency for writers
to avoid expressing absolute certainty, where there may be a small degree of uncertainty, and to
avoid making over-generalisations, where a small number of exceptions might exist. This means
that there are many instances where the epistemological strength (strength of knowledge) of a
statement or claim is mitigated (weakened) in some way. Writers may also wish to create a degree
of distance between themselves and a statement or claim made by another writer. In the field of
linguistics, devices for lessening the strength of a statement or for creating distance are known as
hedging devices. Analysis of research reports have shown that discussion sections tend to be rich
in hedging devices, particularly where writers are offering explanations for findings.
Devices that distance the writer from a proposition
It is thought that …
It is believed that …
It has been reported that …
It is a widely held view that …
It has commonly been assumed that …
According to Smith (2002), …
According to recent reports, …
According to many in the field …
Many scholars hold the view that …
Smith (2001) is of the opinion that …
Recent research has suggested that …
If Smiths (2001) findings are accurate, …
There is some evidence to suggest that …
There is a growing body of evidence to suggest that
Being cautious when giving explanations
These frequent storms
may be
could be
might be
are almost certainly
due to climate change.
It may be
It is likely
It could be
It is possible
It is probable
It is almost certain
that these frequent storms are a result of climate change.
85 | Page
A likely explanation
A possible explanation
A probable explanation
is that these frequent storms are a result of climate change.
Being cautious when explaining results (Refer to: Discussing Findings)
This inconsistency may be due to …
It is possible that this result is due to
This discrepancy could be attributed to …
A possible explanation for this might be that …
It seems possible that these results are due to …
This rather contradictory result may be due to …
The observed increase in X could be attributed to …
There are several possible explanations for this result.
There are two likely causes for the differences between …
A possible explanation for these results may be the lack of adequate …
Since this difference has not been found elsewhere it is probably not due to …
Advising cautious interpretation of results (Refer to: Discussing Findings)
We cannot exclude the possibility that
These findings cannot be extrapolated to all
These findings may be somewhat limited by
The possible interference of X cannot be ruled out …
These data must be interpreted with caution because …
Several sources of error may have influenced these results.
These results therefore need to be interpreted with caution.
These results do not rule out the influence of other factors in
This account must be approached with some caution because
It is important to bear in mind the possible bias in these responses.
Although exclusion of X did not …, these findings should be interpreted with caution.
However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be …
The lack of a standardised measure makes it difficult to interpret these results with confidence.
It is possible that these results
may not apply to
do not represent the
do not accurately reflect
have been confounded by …
may have been skewed by
might be biased because of
could be a statistical anomaly.
might have been affected by
were influenced by the lack of
may underestimate the role of
are not a true representation of
underestimate the true prevalence of
are an artefact of our experimental design.
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Being cautious when discussing implications or recommendations
The findings of this study suggest that …
Taken together, these results suggest that …
The evidence from this study suggests that …
These results would seem to suggest that the …
These initial results are suggestive of a link between X and Y.
Initial observations suggest that there may be a link between …
The findings from these studies suggest that X can have an effect on …
One possible implication of this is that …
Strategies to enhance X might involve …
Other types of response could include: a) , b) …
There would therefore seem to be a definite need for …
A reasonable approach to tackle this issue could be to …
The data reported here appear to support the assumption that …
Another possible area of future research would be to investigate why …
Being cautious when writing about the future
This phenomenon
may
could
might
is likely to
will probably
will almost certainly
become more common in the future.
It is likely
It is possible
It is almost certain
There is a possibility
There is a small chance
There is a strong possibility
that the situation will improve in the long term.
Devices for avoiding over-generalisation
In general, this requires …
In general terms, this means …
X is generally assumed to play a role in …
Authors generally place an emphasis on
X uses generally accepted principles to …
Generally accepted methods for X include: …
Studies which show no effect are not generally published.
Research articles generally consist of the following components:
Quantitative research is generally associated with the positivist paradigm.
87 | Page
Ozone is toxic to
most
almost all
some types of
many types of
the majority of
certain types of
living organisms.
Ozone levels
often
generally
frequently
sometimes
occasionally
nearly always
exceed WHO levels in many cities.
In general, the study found a tendency for
There is a tendency for ozone to attack cells.
Ozone tends to attack cells and break down tissues.
Smith (2003) found a tendency for X to be associated with
Smith et al. (1985) found a tendency for survey respondents to over-report …
The tendency for extreme scores to move toward the mean score over time is known as …
88 | Page
Being Critical
As an academic writer, you are expected to be critical of the sources that you use. This essentially
means questioning what you read and not necessarily agreeing with it just because the information
has been published. Being critical also means looking for reasons why we should not just accept
something as being correct or true. This can require you to identify problems with a writers
arguments or methods, or perhaps to refer to other peoples criticisms of these. Constructive
criticism goes beyond this by suggesting ways in which a piece of research or writing could be
improved … being against is not enough. We also need to develop habits of constructive thinking.
2
Introductory phrases
Much of the criticism that X has attracted relates to
Critics question the ability of the X theory to provide …
Many aspects of this interpretation have been questioned.
Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies.
Smiths meta-analysis has been subjected to considerable criticism.
A frequent criticism of much of the research on X concerns a general lack of
These claims have been strongly contested in recent years by a number of writers.
The X theory has been vigorously challenged in recent years by a number of writers.
More recent arguments against X have been summarised by Smith and Jones (1982).
Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X has not been successful. Jones (2003), for example,
Highlighting inadequacies of previous studies
Previous studies of X have not dealt with …
Researchers have not treated X in much detail.
Such expositions are unsatisfactory because they …
Most studies in the field of X have only focused on …
Half of the studies evaluated failed to specify whether …
The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y.
Most empirical studies of X have relied upon small sample sizes.
However, these studies used non-validated methods to measure …
The vast majority of researchers have not considered the effects of
The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y.
Most studies of X have only been carried out in a small number of areas.
However, much of the research up to now has been descriptive in nature.
Small sample sizes have been a serious limitation for many earlier studies.
The lack of reliable instruments is particularly problematic for studies of
None of the studies reviewed appear to have controlled for the effects of
The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic.
This general lack of methodological rigour may put in question the results of
However, few writers have been able to draw on any structured research into …
There are obvious difficulties in accepting the reliability of self-report information.
However, these results were limited to X and are therefore not representative of …
Most of the research on the association between X and Y is flawed methodologically.
The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about …
Although extensive research has been carried out on X, no single study exists which adequately …
2 De Bono, E. (2016) Parallel Thinking. London: Ebury Publishing (p.58).
89 | Page
Most studies of X
have only focused on …
do not address the question of
are unsatisfactory because they …
fail to estimate economic rates of …
have only investigated the impact of …
have not included variables relating to
are limited by weak designs and a failure to address
have only been carried out in a small number of areas.
Identifying a weakness in a single study or paper
We are not told how
The study suffers from
The paper fails to specify
No attempt has been made to
The study makes no attempt to
The article makes no reference to
The report provides little evidence that
A major problem with this experiment was that
No attempt was made to quantify the association between X and Y.
The scope of this research was relatively narrow, being primarily concerned with
Smiths study of X is considered to be the most important, but it does suffer from the fact that …
However, these results were based upon data from over 30 years ago and it is unclear whether
The study is limited in that
it ignores
it only considers
it fails to provide
it relies solely on
it did not measure
the sample is from
it focuses solely on
it investigates only one
it does not take into account
it did not assess frequency of
the data collected come from
it may be generalisable only to
only 10 participants were included.
the definition of X did not encompass
it does not clearly distinguish between
it is a post-hoc analysis based on data gathered from
90 | Page
The research is limited by
its reliance on
the absence of
incomplete data for
the possible effect of
the relatively small sample.
the lack of information on …
the fact that it only surveyed
the lack of clarity surrounding
the generalisation of the term
the fact that it only includes
the fact that it is retrospective.
the fact that it was restricted to
the fact that there was no collection of
the fact that it is cross-sectional in design.
the fact that it relies on a questionnaire data to
the fact that the participants self-reported their
the fact that it only focussed on the measurement of
the fact that it does not account for variables such as
The paper
fails to
does not
makes no attempt to
specify
quantify
separate
compare
account for
suggest why
analyse how
ascertain whether
distinguish between
explain the meaning of
provide information on
address the question of
assess the effectiveness of
use a standardised method of
give sufficient consideration to
consider the long term impact of
offer an adequate explanation for
engage with current discourses on …
determine the underlying causes of
systematically review all the relevant literature.
91 | Page
(However,) the study
the paper suffers from
selection bias.
limited sample size.
poor external validity.
multiple design flaws.
an overemphasis on
serious statistical flaws.
insufficient sample size.
inconsistent definitions.
poorly developed theory.
historical and cultural bias.
methodological limitations.
serious sampling problems.
a lack of clarity in defining
inadequate research design.
considerable design limitations.
the use of poorly matched controls.
a paucity of standardised measures.
notable methodological weaknesses.
fundamental flaws in research design.
lack of a strong theoretical framework.
certain ambiguities at the conceptual level.
an over-reliance on self-report methodology.
a restricted range of methodological approaches.
shortcomings in the methods used to select cases.
a lack of well-grounded theoretical considerations.
several conceptual and methodological weaknesses.
However,
the analysis is largely superficial, based solely on
the sample size in this study was relatively small
this research has a number of methodological weaknesses.
the degree of X experienced by patients was not measured.
a major weakness with this study is that there was no control for X.
a major problem with this experiment was that no control for X was used.
the main methodological weakness is that X was only monitored for 12 months.
one of the problems with the instrument the researchers used to measure X was …
No attempt has been made to
estimate the risk of
determine whether
investigate whether
quantify the degree of
model the dynamics of …
92 | Page
Introducing problems and limitations with a theory or argument
The main weakness with this theory is that
The key problem with this explanation is that …
However, this theory does not fully explain why
One criticism of much of the literature on X is that …
Critics question the ability of the X theory to provide …
However, there is an inconsistency with this argument.
There are limits to how far the concept of X can be taken.
A serious weakness with this argument, however, is that …
However, such explanations tend to overlook the fact that …
One question that needs to be asked, however, is whether …
One of the main difficulties with this line of reasoning is that
Smiths argument relies too heavily on qualitative analysis of …
Smiths interpretation overlooks much of the historical research …
Many writers have challenged Smiths claim on the grounds that …
The X theory has been criticised for being based on weak evidence.
Smiths analysis does not take account of X, nor does he examine …
The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y.
It seems that Jones understanding of the X framework is questionable.
Aspects of X’s theory have been criticised at a number of different levels.
One of the limitations with this explanation is that it does not explain why .
A final criticism of the theory of X is that it struggles to explain some aspects of
The X theory has been vigorously challenged in recent years by a number of writers.
A second criticism of the hypothesis draws upon research evidence which suggests
The X hypothesis has been questioned on the basis of some conflicting experimental findings.
Around the 1970s the consensus was that , but during the 1980s several researchers challenged
this view.
The theory is unable to
predict
explain why
fully account for
adequately explain the
explain what happens when
make any useful prediction about
explain the differences observed when
provide a comprehensive explanation for
The current model of X suffers from
poor scalability.
unnecessary complexity.
lack of empirical support.
several methodological problems.
certain weaknesses that hinder its ability to
93 | Page
Introducing problems and limitations with a method or practice
The limitation of this approach is that
A major problem with the X method is that …
One major drawback of this approach is that …
A criticism of this experimental design is that
The main limitation of this technique, however, is …
Selection bias is another potential concern because …
Perhaps the most serious disadvantage of this method is that …
Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies.
All the studies reviewed so far, however, suffer from the fact that …
Critics of laboratory-based experiments contend that such studies
The disadvantage of this method is its reliance on the availability of
Another problem with this approach is that it fails to take X into account.
Difficulties arise, however, when an attempt is made to implement the policy.
There are obvious difficulties in accepting the reliability of self-report information.
In recent years, however, this approach has been challenged by the work of a number of
There are certain problems with the use of focus groups. One of these is that there is less …
Critics have also argued that not only do surveys provide an inaccurate measure of X, but the …
Nevertheless, the strategy has not escaped criticism from governments, agencies and academics.
Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X has not been successful. Jones (2003), for example,
argues that
However, all the previously mentioned methods suffer from (some) serious
drawbacks.
limitations.
weaknesses.
shortcomings.
disadvantages.
However,
this method of analysis has a number of limitations.
this method does involve potential measurement error.
approaches of this kind carry with them various well-known limitations.
questions have been raised about the reliability of self-report methods.
Selection bias is another (potential)
risk.
concern.
problem.
limitation.
weakness.
threat to internal validity.
limitation of systematic reviews.
94 | Page
Criticising an author or an authors work
Smith seems to ignore
Smith fails to grasp that
Smiths interpretation overlooks
Smith overlooks a number of important sources.
Smith fails to acknowledge the social aspects of
However, Smiths accounts are clearly ideological.
Although Smith has argued that she neglects to note that
Many aspects of Smiths interpretation have been questioned.
Smiths meta-analysis has been subjected to considerable criticism.
Smiths arguments for X have been forcefully questioned in recent years.
The most important of these criticisms is that Smith failed to note that …
The most convincing rebuttal of Smiths interpretations has been written by
Smiths decision to prioritise X as the primary cause of Y has been widely attacked.
The scope of this research was relatively narrow, being primarily concerned with
Smiths study of X is considered to be the most important, but it does suffer from the fact that …
Smith
The book
The paper
fails to
does not
makes no attempt to
specify
quantify
compare
separate
account for
suggest why
analyse how
ascertain whether
distinguish between
explain the meaning of
provide information on
address the question of
assess the effectiveness of
use a standardised method of
give sufficient consideration to
consider the long term impact of
offer an adequate explanation for
engage with current discourses on …
determine the underlying causes of
systematically review all the relevant literature.
Smiths paper is
limited
deficient
problematic
in three areas.
with regard to
in two respects.
in that it ignores
in the sense that
for several reasons.
95 | Page
(However,)
the paper does not address
Smith fails to fully define what …
a major criticism of Smiths work is that …
Smith fails to acknowledge the significance of …
the author overlooks the fact that X contributes to Y.
what Smith fails to do is to draw a distinction between …
Smiths paper would appear to be over ambitious in its claims.
the main weakness of the study is the failure to address how …
another weakness is that we are given no explanation of how …
the research does not take into account pre-existing … such as …
the study fails to consider the differing categories of damage that …
the author offers no explanation for the distinction between X and Y.
Smith makes no attempt to differentiate between different types of X.
Smith
The book
The paper
overlooks
fails to acknowledge
makes no attempt to consider
the impact of
the reasons for
the evidence for
the contexts in which
several key aspects of
the variable nature of
other explanations for
the complex nature of
the potential impact of
the social dimension of
the dynamic aspects of …
the underlying causes of
demographic factors that …
the ethical implications of …
the important role played by
the broader implications of how …
the unique complexities faced by …
the contextual factors that influence
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Offering constructive suggestions
The study would have been more interesting if it had included
These studies would have been more useful if they had focused on
The study would have been more relevant if the researchers had asked
The questionnaire would have been more useful if it had asked participants about
The research would have been more relevant if a wider range of X had been explored.
The study
The findings
Smiths paper
Her conclusions
would have been
might have been
more
much more
far more
useful
original
relevant
convincing
interesting
persuasive
if he/she had
if the author had
used …
adopted
included
provided
considered
A more comprehensive study would include all the groups of …
A better study would examine a large, randomly selected sample of societies with …
A much more systematic approach would identify how X interacts with other variables that …
Evaluating work positively
This article provides a valuable insight into
Overall, Xs study is a powerful explanation of
Smiths research is valuable for our understanding of
The first major fieldwork project that was started in X was
In his seminal text, XXXXX, Smith devoted some attention to
One of the most influential accounts of X comes from Smith (1986)
Smiths synthesis remains one of the most comprehensive studies of
Smith makes an interesting contribution with regard to the impact of
In a well-designed and robust study, Smith (1998) examined data from
A good summary of the classification of X has been provided in the work of
The pioneering work of Smith remains crucial to our wider understanding of
The most comprehensive study of X during this period has been undertaken by
Smith, in his comprehensive two-volume biography of X, devoted a substantial section to
Smiths study is of great significance as it marks the first attempt to assess the broader impact of
A more substantial approach to the longer-term significance of X can be found in Smiths recent
article in
97 | Page
Smith (1990)
offers
provides
presents
a useful
a detailed
an original
an insightful
an extensive
an interesting
a contemporary
a comprehensive
analysis of
In his
In her
In this
useful
timely
seminal
detailed
thorough
excellent
influential
important
innovative
pioneering
impressive
wide-ranging
comprehensive
ground-breaking
study (of X),
survey (of X),
analysis (of X),
examination (of X),
investigation (into X),
Smith (2012)
Jones (2014)
found …
concluded that …
was able to show …
argues that
makes the case for
provides a valuable …
Smiths
seminal
landmark
influential
thoughtful
innovative
pioneering
fascinating
informative
wide-ranging
comprehensive
ground-breaking
study
analysis
provides a valuable insight into
makes a valuable contribution with regard to
remains crucial to our wider understanding of
is of great significance as it marks the first attempt to
98 | Page
Introducing the critical responses of individual writers
Smith (2014) disputes this account of
Jones (2003) has also questioned why …
However, Jones (2015) points out that …
The author challenges the widely held view that …
Smith (1999) takes issue with the contention that
The idea that was first challenged by Smith (1992).
Smith is critical of the tendency to compartmentalise X.
However, Smith (1967) questioned this hypothesis and
Smith (1980) broke with tradition by raising the question of
Jones (2003) has challenged some of Smiths conclusions, arguing that …
Another major criticism of Smiths study, made by Jones (2003), is that
Jones (2003) is critical of the conclusions that Smith draws from his findings.
An alternative interpretation of the origins of X can be found in Smith (1976).
Jones (2003) is probably the best-known critic of the X theory. He argues that …
In her discussion of X, Smith further criticises the ways in which some authors
Smiths decision to reject the classical explanation of X merits some discussion
In a recent article in Academic Journal, Smith (2014) questions the extent to which
The latter point has been devastatingly critiqued by Jones (2003), who argues that …
A recently published article by Smith et al. (2011) casts doubt on Jones assumption that
Other authors (see Harbison, 2003; Kaplan, 2004) question the usefulness of such an approach.
Smith criticised Jones for his overly restrictive and selective definition of X which was limited to
Smiths analysis has been criticised by a number of writers. Jones (1993), for example, points out …
Smith
criticises
questions
challenges
is critical of
casts doubt on
points out that
takes issue with
raises a number of questions about
Introducing a section of text which has a critical purpose
The section below
The section that follows
critically
assesses
examines
the idea that
the view that
the quality of
the claim that
the concept of
the role played by
the argument that
Smiths analysis of
the effectiveness of
the current approaches to
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Classifying and Listing
When we classify things, we group and name them on the basis of something that they have in
common. By doing this we can understand certain qualities and features which they share as a class.
Classifying is also a way of understanding differences between things. In writing, classifying is often
used as a way of introducing a reader to a new topic. Along with writing definitions, the function of
classification may be used in the early part of an essay, or longer piece of writing. We list things
when we want to treat and present a series of items or different pieces of information
systematically. The order of a list may indicate ranked importance.
Classifying a topic
X can be classified into Xi and Xii.
X can be categorised into Xi, Xii and Xiii.
Several taxonomies for X have been developed
Different methods have been proposed to classify
X may be divided into several groups: a) , b) , c)
Generally, X provides two types of information: Xi and Xii.
It has become commonplace to distinguish Xi from Xii forms of X.
X is generally classified into two types: Xi, also known as …, and Xii or …
There are two basic approaches currently being adopted in research into X. One is
The theory distinguishes two different types of X, i.e. social X and semantic X (Smith, 2013).
The works of Smith fall under three headings: (1) dialogues and …, (2) collections of facts, and (3)
X may be divided into three main
classes.
categories.
sub-groups.
X may be classified
in terms of
according to
depending on
on the basis of
Y into Xi and Xii.
Specific classifications
Smith (2015) draws a distinction between
Smith (2006) categorised X as being a) , b) , or c)
Smiths (1980) typology of X is the one most widely used.
Jones (1987) distinguishes between systems that are a) , b) , or c)
A third method, proposed by Smith (2010), bases the classification on a
To better understand X, Smith (2011) classified Y into three distinct types using …
In 1960, Smith developed a system of classification that can be used by clinicians to
In Joness system, individuals are classified as belonging to upper or lower categories of …
For Smith, X is of four kinds: (1) X which …; (2) X which …; (3) X which …; and (4) X which …
Smiths Taxonomy is a classification system used to define and distinguish different levels of
Smith and Jones (2003) argue that there are two broad categories of Y, which are: a) …, and b) …
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Commenting on a system of classification: positive or neutral
This system of classification
includes …
allows for …
is widely used in
helps distinguish …
is useful because …
is very simple and
provides a basis for …
has clinical relevance.
was agreed upon after …
can vary depending on …
is still respected and used.
is particularly well suited for
has withstood the test of time.
is a convenient way to describe
has been broadened to include …
was developed for the purpose of …
is more scientific since it is based on
In Smiths scheme,
In the traditional system, Xs are
were
grouped
classified
in terms of …
on the basis of …
according to whether …
Smith (1996) describes four basic kinds of validity: logical, content, criterion, and construct.
Smith and Jones (1966)
divided
grouped
classified
Xs into two broad types: Xis and Xiis.
Smiths taxonomy is
used to classify
a hierarchical model for classifying …
a well-known description of levels of
a classification of learning objectives ….
a widely acknowledged classification system useful for ….
a multi-tiered model of classifying X according to different levels of
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Commenting on a system of classification: negative
This system of classification
is misleading.
is now out of date.
can be problematic.
is in need of revision.
poses a problem for …
is not universally used.
is somewhat arbitrary.
is simplistic and arbitrary.
is inherently problematic.
has relevance only within
has some clear deficiencies.
has now been largely abandoned.
has limited utility with respect to …
is obsolete and tends to be avoided.
Introducing lists
This topic can best be treated under three headings: X, Y, and Z.
The key aspects of management can be listed as follows: X, Y, and Z.
There are two types of effect which result when a patient undergoes X. These are …
The Three Voices for Mass is divided into six sections. These are: the Kyrie, Gloria, ….
There are three reasons why the English language has become so dominant. These are:
Appetitive stimuli have three separable basic functions. Firstly, they … Secondly, they …
This section has been included for several reasons: it is …; it illustrates …; and it describes…
The disadvantages of the new approach can be discussed under three headings, which are: …
During his tour of Britain, he visited the following industrial centres: Manchester, Leeds, and … The
Mass for Four Voices consists of five movements, which are: the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and
Agnus Dei.
Referring to other peoples lists
Smith and Jones (1991) list X, Y and Z as the major causes of failure.
Smith (2003) lists the main features of X as follows: it is A; it is B; and it has C.
Smith (2003) argues that there are two broad categories of Y, which are: a) … and b) …
Smith (2003) suggests three conditions for X . Firstly, X should be … Secondly, it needs to be…
For Aristotle, motion is of four kinds: (1) motion which …; (2) motion which …; (3) motion which …;
and (4) motion which…
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Comparing and Contrasting
By understanding similarities and differences between two things, we can increase our
understanding and learn more about both. This usually involves a process of analysis, in which we
compare the specific parts as well as the whole. Comparison may also be a preliminary stage of
evaluation. For example, by comparing specific aspects of A and B, we can decide which is more
useful or valuable. Many paragraphs whose function is to compare or contrast will begin with an
introductory sentence expressed in general terms.
Introducing differences
X differs from Y in terms of
X is different from Y in a number of respects.
X differs from Y in a number of important ways.
There are a number of important differences between X and Y.
Areas where significant differences have been found include X and Y.
In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of X was detected.
A descriptive case study differs from an exploratory study in that it uses
Smith (2013) found dramatic differences in the rate of decline of X between Y and Z.
Women and men differ not only in physical attributes but also in the way in which they …
The nervous systems of Xs are significantly different from those of Ys in several key respects.
Smith (2003) found
observed
minor
major
distinct
notable
only slight
significant
considerable
differences between X and Y.
One of the most
crucial
salient
marked
striking
notable
obvious
important
significant
prominent
noticeable
interesting
fundamental
widely reported
differences between X and Y is
103 | Page
Introducing similarities
X is comparable to Y in terms of
Both X and Y share a number of key features.
There are a number of similarities between X and Y.
The effects of X on human health are similar to those of Y.
Both X and Y generally take place in a safe environment.
These results are similar to those reported by (Smith et al. 1999).
This definition is similar to that found in (Smith, 2001) who writes:
The return rate is similar to that of comparable studies (e.g. Smith et al. 1999).
The approach used in this investigation is similar to that used by other researchers.
Studies have compared Xs in humans and animals and found that they are essentially identical.
The mode of processing used
by the right brain
is similar to that
is comparable to that
is comparable in complexity to that
used by the left brain.
Comparing within one sentence using subordinating adverbs
Oral societies tend to be more
concerned with the present
while
whereas
literate societies have a very definite awareness
of the past.
While
Whereas oral societies tend to be more concerned with the present,
literate societies have
a very definite
awareness of the past.
Comparing within one sentence using prepositional phrases
In contrast to
Compared with people in oral cultures, people in literate cultures organise their lives around
clocks and calendars.
Comparing within one sentence using contrastive verbs
Smiths interpretation
differs from that
contrasts with that
is different from that
of Jones (2004) who argues that …
104 | Page
Comparing within one sentence using comparative forms
In the trial, women made more/fewer errors than men.
Women tend to have greater/less verbal fluency than men.
Women are more/less likely than men to perform well in tests.
Women are more/less accurate in tests of target-directed motor skills.
Women tend to perform better/worse than men on tests of perceptual speed.
Women are faster/slower than men at certain precision manual tasks, such as …
Women are more/less likely to suffer from X when the front part of the brain is damaged.
The part of the brain connecting the two hemispheres may be more/less extensive in women.
Women
may be more/less susceptible to X
are more/less accurate in tests of X
are more/less likely to perform well
make more/fewer errors in tests of X
tend to have greater/less verbal fluency
tend to perform better/worse in tests of X
than men.
Indicating difference across two sentences
It is very difficult to get away
from calendar time in literate
societies.
By contrast,
In contrast,
On the other hand,
many people in oral communities have little
idea of the calendar year of their birth.
According to some studies, X is represented
as (Smith, 2012; Jones, 2014).
Others propose (Jones, 2014; Brown, 2015)
Smith (2013) found that X accounted for over
30% of Y.
Other researchers, however, who have looked at
X, have found … Jones (2010), for example, …
Jones (2002) reports that … However, Smiths (2010) study of Y found no …
105 | Page
Indicating similarity across two sentences
Young children learning their first
language need simplified input.
Similarly,
Likewise,
In the same way,
low level adult learners need graded
input supplied in most cases by a teacher.
Smith (2014) argues that …
Jones (2015) sees X as …
Similarly,
Likewise,
In the same vein,
Brown (2015) asserts that …
White (2016) holds the view that …
Green (2018) in his book XXXXX notes …
106 | Page
Defining Terms
In academic work,students are often expected to give definitions of key words and phrases in order
to demonstrate to their tutors that they understand these terms well. Academic writers generally,
however, define terms so that their readers understand exactly what is meant when certain key
terms are used. When important words are not clearly understood misinterpretation may result. In
fact, many disagreements (academic, legal, diplomatic, personal) arise because of different
interpretations of the same term. In academic teaching and writing, lecturers and their students
often have to explore these differing interpretations before moving on to examine a topic in depth.
Introductory phrases
The term X was first used by
The term X can be traced back to
Previous studies mostly defined X as
The term X was introduced by Smith in her
Historically, the term X has been used to describe
It is necessary here to clarify exactly what is meant by …
This shows a need to be explicit about exactly what is meant by the word X.
Simple three-part definitions
A university is an institution where knowledge is produced and passed on to others.
Social Economics
may be defined as
the branch of
economics
[which is] concerned with the measurement, causes,
and consequences of social problems.
Research may be
defined as
a systematic
process
which consists of three elements or components: (1) a
question, problem, or hypothesis, (2) data, and (3)
analysis and interpretation of data.
Education is a form of
learning
in which the knowledge, skills, or values of a group of
people are transferred from one generation to the next.
A scientific theory
can be defined as
an explanation of
some aspect of
the natural world
[which has been] confirmed by observation or
experiment.
Braille is a system of touch reading and writing for blind people in which
raised dots on paper represent letters.
Science is the systematic
study of
the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural
world through observation and experiment.
107 | Page
General meanings or application of meanings
X can broadly be defined as
X can be loosely described as
X can be defined as … It encompasses …
In the literature, the term tends to be used to refer to …
In broad terms, X can be defined as any stimulus that is …
Whereas X refers to the operations of …, Y refers to the …
The broad use of the term X is sometimes equated with …
The term disease refers to a biological event characterised by …
Defined as , X is now considered a worldwide problem and is associated with …
The term X
refers to …
encompasses A), B), and C).
has come to be used to refer to …
is generally understood to mean …
has been used to refer to situations in which …
carries certain connotations in some types of
is a relatively new name for a Y, commonly referred to as …
X is a/an
broad
generic
common
umbrella
non-specific
relatively new
term
that refers to
used to describe
which encompasses
covering a wide range of
Indicating varying definitions
The definition of X has evolved.
There are multiple definitions of X.
Several definitions of X have been proposed.
In the field of X, various definitions of X are found.
The term X embodies a multitude of concepts which …
This term has two overlapping, even slightly confusing meanings.
Widely varying definitions of X have emerged (Smith and Jones, 1999).
Despite its common usage, X is used in different disciplines to mean different things.
Since the definition of X varies among researchers, it is important to clarify how the term is used in
The meaning of this term
has evolved.
has varied over time.
has been extended to refer to
has been broadened in recent years.
has not been consistent throughout
has changed somewhat from its original definition, particularly in
108 | Page
Indicating difficulties in defining a term
X is a contested term.
X is a rather nebulous term
X is challenging to define because
A precise definition of X has proved elusive.
A generally accepted definition of X is lacking.
Unfortunately, X remains a poorly defined term.
There is no agreed definition on what constitutes
There is little consensus about what X actually means.
There is a degree of uncertainty around the terminology in …
These terms are often used interchangeably and without precision.
Numerous terms are used to describe X, the most common of which are .
The definition of X varies in the literature and there is terminological confusion.
Smith (2001) identified four abilities that might be subsumed under the term X: a) …
X is a term frequently used in the literature, but to date there is no consensus about …
X is a commonly used notion in psychology and yet it is a concept difficult to define precisely.
Although differences of opinion still exist, there appears to be some agreement that X refers to …
The meaning of this term
has been disputed.
has been debated ever since
has proved to be notoriously hard to define.
has been an object of major disagreement in
has been a matter of ongoing discussion among
Referring to peoples definitions: author prominent
For Smith (2001), X means …
Smith (2001) uses the term X to refer to …
Smith (1954) was apparently the first to use the term …
This definition is close to that of Smith (2012) who defines X as
In 1987, psychologist John Smith popularized the term X to describe …
According to a definition provided by Smith (2001:23), X is the maximally …
Smith, has shown that, as late as 1920, Jones was using the term X to refer to particular …
One of the first people to define nursing was Florence Nightingale (1860), who wrote: … …
Chomsky writes that a grammar is a device of some sort for producing the …. (1957, p.11).
Aristotle defines the imagination as the movement which results upon an actual sensation.
Smith et al. (2002) have provided a new definition of health: health is a state of being with
Referring to peoples definitions: author non-prominent
X is defined by Smith (2003: 119) as … …
The term X was introduced by Smith in her
The term X is used by Smith (2001) to refer to …
The terms X and Y were first used by Smith (1954).
X is, for Smith (2012), the situation which occurs when
A further definition is given by Smith (1982) who describes …
A similar definition has been proposed by Smith et al. (1998), who have argued that
The term X is used by Aristotle in four overlapping senses. First, it is the underlying …
X is the degree to which an assessment process or device measures (Smith et al., 1986).
109 | Page
Commenting on a definition
This definition
includes …
allows for …
highlights the …
helps distinguish …
takes into account
poses a problem for …
will continue to evolve.
can vary depending on …
was agreed upon after …
is intended primarily for
has largely fallen out of use.
fails to capture the idea of
raises some important issues.
has been broadened to include …
captures a number of important features of
The following definition is
intended to …
modelled on
too simplistic.
useful because …
problematic as …
rather imprecise.
inadequate since …
does not recognise
in need of revision since …
important for what it excludes.
the most precise produced so far.
What is
useful
striking
notable
troubling
appealing
significant
important
distinctive
interesting
remarkable
about this definition is
that it offers
that it stresses
the emphasis on
that it recognises
that it is based on
that it clearly links
that it acknowledges
that it encompasses all
that it takes for granted
what it does not include
110 | Page
Specifying terms that are used in an essay or thesis
The term X is used here to refer to
In the present study, X is defined as …
The term X will be used solely when referring to …
This study utilises the concept of X first proposed by
In this essay, the term X will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all …
In this paper, the term that will be used to describe this phenomenon is X.
In this dissertation, the terms X and Y are used interchangeably to mean …
Throughout this thesis, the term X is used to refer to informal systems as well as …
While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this paper will use the definition
first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as …
111 | Page
Describing Trends and Projections
A trend is the general direction in which something is developing or changing over time. A
projection is a prediction of future change. Trends and projections are usually illustrated using line
graphs in which the horizontal axis represents time. Some of the language commonly used for
writing about trends and projections is given below.
Describing trends
The graph shows that there has been a
Figure 2 reveals that there has been a
slight
steep
sharp
steady
gradual
marked
fall
rise
drop
decline
increase
decrease
in the number of .
Highlighting a trend in a table or chart
What is striking
What stands out
What is interesting
What can be clearly seen
in this
table
chart
figure
is the growth of
is the high rate of
is the variability of
is the dominance of
is the rapid decrease in
is the steady decline of
is the general pattern of
is the dramatic decline in
is the continual growth of
is the difference between
is the phenomenal growth of
Describing high and low points in figures
Production of X peaked in 1985.
X rose to a high point and peaked in
The peak age for committing a crime is 18.
The number of Xs reached a peak during
Production of X reached a low point in 2008.
The rate fell to a low point of $5.00 at the end of the year.
112 | Page
Projecting trends
The rate of X
The amount of X
The number of Ys
is likely to
will probably
is expected to
is projected to
is anticipated to
fall
reach
rise to
increase
level off
decline by
drop sharply
remain steady
be as high as
decline steadily
continue decreasing
grow by more than
after 2030.
113 | Page
Describing Quantities
The language for writing about quantities can be a complex area for non-native speakers because
there are many combinations of short grammar words, such as prepositions and pronouns, and
these can easily be confused. Many of the phrases given below also contain approximators such as:
nearly, approximately, over half, less than, just over.
Describing fractions and percentages
Over half of those surveyed indicated that …
Nearly half of the respondents (48%) agreed that …
Almost two-thirds of the participants (64%) said that ….
Approximately half of those surveyed did not comment on …
Of the 270 participants, nearly one-third did not agree about
Less than a third of those who responded (32%) indicated that …
The number of cases in the United Kingdom fell by nearly two-fifths.
Of the 148 participants who completed the questionnaire, just over half indicated that …
The incidence of X has been estimated as 10%
70% of those who were interviewed indicated that …
Since 1981, England has experienced an 89% increase in crime.
The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months.
Returned surveys from 34 radiologists yielded a 34% response rate.
He also noted that fewer than 10% of the articles included in his study cited …
With each year of advancing age, the probability of having X increased by 9.6% (p = 0.006) is …
The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 in 1970 to …
Just over
Well over
More than
Many more than
Almost
Around
Approximately
Just under
Less than
Fewer than
Well under
half
a third
a quarter
of those surveyed
of the respondents
of those who responded
agreed that
indicated that
did not respond to this question.
40%
50%
80%
114 | Page
Describing averages
The average of 12 observations in the X, Y and Z is 19.2 mgs/m …
Roman slaves probably had a lower than average life expectancy.
This figure can be seen as the average life expectancy at various ages.
The proposed model suggests a steep decline in mean life expectancy …
The mean age of Xs with coronary atherosclerosis was 48.3 6.3 years.
The mean estimated age at death was 38.1 12.0 years (ranging from 10 to 60+ years)
The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 in 1970 to …
The mean score for the two trials was subjected to multivariate analysis of variance to determine …
Roman slaves probably had a much lower than average life expectancy.
The Roman nobility probably had a much higher than average life expectancy.
Describing ranges
The respondents had practised X for an average of 15 years (range 6 to 35 years).
The participants were aged 19 to 25 and were from both rural and urban backgrounds.
They calculated ranges of journal use from 10.7%36.4% for the humanities, 25%57% for …
The evidence shows that life expectancy from birth lies in the range of twenty to thirty years.
The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 to $9,833.
Rates of decline ranged from 2.71 0.08 cm per day (Table 11) with a mean of 0.97 cm per day.
Most estimates of X range from 200.000 to 700.000 and, in some cases, up to a million or more.
At between 575 and 590 metres depth, the sea floor is extremely flat, with an average slope of …
Describing ratios and proportions
X has the highest proportion of.
X had the lowest proportion of Y at only 14 per cent.
The annual birth rate dropped from 44.4 to 38.6 per 1000 per annum.
The proportion of live births outside marriage reached one in ten in 1945.
The proportion of the population attending emergency departments was 65% higher in X than …
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Explaining Causality
A great deal of academic work involves understanding and suggesting solutions to problems. At
postgraduate level, particularly in applied fields, students search out problems to study. In fact, one
could say that problems are the raw material for a significant proportion of academic activity.
However, solutions cannot be suggested unless the problem is fully analysed, and this involves a
thorough understanding of the causes. Some of the language that you may find useful for explaining
causes and effects is listed below.
Verbs indicating causality
Lack of iron in the diet
may cause
can lead to
can result in
can give rise to
tiredness and fatigue.
Scurvy is a disease
caused by
resulting from
stemming from
lack of vitamin C.
Much of the instability in X
is driven by
stems from
is caused by
can be attributed to
the economic effects of the war.
Nouns indicating causality
One reason why Xs have declined is that …
A consequence of vitamin A deficiency is blindness.
X can have profound health consequences for older people.
The most likely causes of X are poor diet and lack of exercise.
The causes of X have been the subject of intense debate within …
Prepositional phrases indicating causality
Around 200,000 people per year suffer from X
owing to
because of
as a result of
as a consequence of
poor diet.
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Sentence connectors indicating causality
If undernourished children do survive to
become adults, they have decreased
learning ability.
Therefore,
Consequently,
Because of this,
As a result (of this),
when they grow up, it will
probably be difficult for them
to find work.
Adverbial elements indicating causality
Malnutrition leads to illness and a reduced ability to
work in adulthood, thus
thereby
perpetuating the poverty cycle.
The warm air rises above the surface of the sea, creating an area of low pressure.
Nouns indicating contributing agency
X is a key factor in
X is a major influence on
X has a positive effect on
X has a significant impact on
X is an important determinant of
X and Y are important driving factors of Z.
X is generally seen as a factor strongly related to Y.
X is a significant contributory factor to the development of
This work has revealed several factors that are responsible for
The study found that loneliness has twice the impact on early death as obesity does.
X is a/an
risk
common
dominant
predictive
important
significant
underlying
contributing
confounding
complicating
factor in
for
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Verbs indicating contributing agency
X has contributed to the decline in
It is now understood that X plays an important role in
A number of factors play a role in determining the effects of
The mixing of X and Y exerts a powerful effect upon Z through…
Recent research has revealed that X has a detrimental effect on
A number of factors are known to affect the volume and type of
All these factors can impact on the efficiency and effectiveness of
X is only one of many factors that help to determine the quality of
Several factors are known to
affect X.
shape X.
predict X.
increase X.
influence X.
determine X.
encourage X.
affect the rate of
be associated with
increase the risk of
play a role in determining X.
be partially responsible for
Contributory agency Preventative agency
X
aids
fuels
assists
boosts
fosters
enables
amplifies
facilitates
promotes
intensifies
speeds up
stimulates
aggravates
accelerates
encourages
exacerbates
Y X
blocks
deters
delays
shrinks
impairs
inhibits
hinders
reduces
controls
weakens
impedes
prevents
obstructs
decreases
moderates
counteracts
Y
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Verbs describing activity to understand causes
Few studies
Many studies
Previous studies
have
analysed
explored
described
examined
addressed
investigated
the causes of X.
Expressing a causal relationship tentatively
X may have been an important factor in …
X may have contributed to the increase in …
X may have been caused by an increase in …
X may have played a vital role in bringing about …
X appears to be linked to Y.
In the literature, X has been associated with Y.
A high consumption of X could be associated with infertility.
X in many cases may be associated with certain bacterial infections.
There is some evidence that X may affect Y.
It is not yet clear whether X is made worse by Y.
This suggests a weak link may exist between X and Y.
The use of X may be linked to behaviour problems in …
The human papilloma virus is linked to many cancers in .
The findings indicate that regular exercise could improve cognitive function in people at risk of …
Speculating on causes in the past
X may have
caused Y.
given rise to Y.
brought about Y.
been an important factor in Y.
contributed to the increase in Y.
been caused by an increase in Y.
played a vital role in bringing about Y.
X may have been
due to Y.
caused by Y.
attributed to Y.
brought about by Y.
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Giving Examples as Support
Writers may give specific examples as evidence to support their general claims or arguments.
Examples can also be used to help the reader or listener understand unfamiliar or difficult concepts,
and they tend to be easier to remember. For this reason, they are often used in teaching. Finally,
students may be required to give examples in their work to demonstrate that they have understood
a complex problem or concept. When statements and arguments are supported with examples, it
is helpful to the reader when explicit language is used to signal this.
Giving examples as the main information in a sentence
A classic
A useful
A notable
A prominent
An important
A well-known
example of X is ….
For example, the word doctor used to mean a learned man.
For example, Smith and Jones (2004) conducted a series of semi-structured interviews in …
Young people begin smoking for a variety of reasons. They may, for example, be influenced by ….
Another example of what is meant by X is …
This is exemplified in the work undertaken by …
To give a well-known example for the sake of clarity,
This distinction is further exemplified in studies using …
An example of this is the study carried out by Smith (2004) in which …
The effectiveness of the X technique has been exemplified in a report by Smith et al. (2010).
This is evident in the case of …
This is certainly true in the case of …
The case of X illustrates the nature of
The evidence of X can be clearly seen in the case of …
In a similar case in America, Smith (1992) identified …
This can be seen in the case of the two London physics laboratories which …
X is a good illustration of …
X illustrates this point clearly.
This can be illustrated briefly by …
The most dramatic illustration of this is
By way of illustration, Smith (2003) shows how the data for …
These experiments illustrate that X and Y have distinct functions in …
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Giving examples as additional information in a sentence
Young people begin smoking for a variety of reasons, such as pressure from peers or
The prices of resources, such as copper, iron ore, and aluminium, have declined over
Many diseases can result at least in part from stress, including: arthritis, asthma, and migraine.
Gassendi kept in close contact with many other scholars, such as Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, and
Pavlov found that if some other stimulus, for example the ringing of a bell, preceded the food, the
Reporting cases as support
This case has shown that …
This has been seen in the case of …
The case reported here illustrates the …
From these examples, it is evident that
Overall, these cases support the view that …
This case study confirms the importance of …
It is evident from the examples given here that
The evidence presented thus far supports the idea that …
This case demonstrates the need for better strategies for …
As this case very clearly demonstrates, it is important that …
This case reveals the need for further investigation in patients with …
This case demonstrates how X used innovative marketing strategies in …
Recent cases reported by Smith et al. (2013) also support the hypothesis that …
In support of this approach, Y has been shown to induce Y in several cases (Smith et al., 2001).
This case
These cases
illustrate(s)
demonstrate(s)
the need for
the dangers of
the possibility of
the necessity of
the benefit of using
how important it is to
what can happen when
the potential harm from
the central role played by
(some of) the problems caused by
(some of) the differences between
(some of) the difficulties that arise when
121 | Page
Signalling Transition
Previewing what is to follow in a paper or dissertation is like showing a map to a driver; it enables
them to see where they are going. So it is useful to think of a preview section as a ‘road map’ for
the reader. It must be accurate, but it must be easy to follow.
Writers are also expected to indicate to the reader when they are moving from one topic to
another, or from one section of text to another. These are known as transition statements and
examples of these, together with some previewing statements, are given below (also refer to A
note on Academic Presentations).
Previewing a section of text
The following is a brief description of …
In the section that follows, it will be argued that …
The problem of X is discussed in the following section.
A more detailed account of X is given in the following section.
The structure and functions of X will be explained in the following section.
The following part of this paper moves on to describe in greater detail the…
This introductory section provides a brief overview of … It then goes on to …
In the following
pages,
section,
paragraphs,
I
review
argue that
will describe how
will briefly discuss
will attempt to explore
In the section will present two influential theories of below,
that follows,
The section below
The following section
reviews
presents
discusses
describes
examines
draws together
What follows is
a review of
a summary of
an account of
a description of
a brief outline of
a brief overview of
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Previewing a short paper (also refer to Introducing Work)
In this paper, I argue that
The aim of this paper is to
The central thesis of this paper is that …
This paper has been divided into four parts. This first
This paper
aims to
begins by
argues that
gives an account of
discusses the case of
has been divided into
analyses the impact of
attempts to show that
contests the claim that
provides an overview of
first gives a brief overview of
Previewing a chapter or section
The aim of the chapter is to introduce
This section will attempt to assess whether
This chapter is subdivided into three sections.
The central section of this paper seeks to provide a
Experiments described in this chapter examine the effect of
In this chapter, I describe the data collection procedures and
The second part highlights the key theoretical concepts which
This chapter of the dissertation is divided into two parts. The first …
This part of the thesis discusses the findings which emerged from
The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature on X. It begins by …
This chapter is divided into four main sections, each of which presents the results relating to
This chapter discusses the specific methods by which the research and analyses were conducted.
The main
topics
issues
themes
periods
developments
covered in this chapter are
This chapter
reviews
assesses
discusses
draws together
attempts to provide
describes the methods used in this investigation. The first section …
contextualises the research by providing background information on
123 | Page
Introducing a new topic or aspect of a topic
Regarding X, …
As regards X, …
In terms of X, …
In the case of X …
With regard to X, …
With respect to X, …
On the question of X,
As far as X is concerned, …
Another important aspect of X is
Reintroducing a topic
As discussed above, …
As explained earlier, …
As previously stated,
As indicated previously
As has already been noted
As described on the previous page, …
As was mentioned in the previous chapter, …
Returning (briefly) to the (subject/issue) of X, …
As explained in the introduction, it is clear that …
As was pointed out in the introduction to this paper, …
Moving from one section to the next
Turning now to
Let us now turn to
Let us now consider
Moving on now to consider
It would be useful at this stage to consider
Turning now to the experimental evidence on …
Before proceeding to examine X, it is important to …
Before explaining these theories, it is necessary to …
Having defined what is meant by X, I will now move on to discuss …
So far this paper has focused on X. The following section will discuss …
Having analysed X in some detail, we are now in a position to return to
This chapter has demonstrated that … It is now necessary to explain the course of …
Having discussed how to construct X, the final section of this paper addresses ways of …
This section has analysed the causes of X and has argued that … The next part of this paper will …
Moving from one section to the next whilst indicating addition, contrast or opposition
Another significant aspect of X is
In addition, it is important to ask …
Unlike Smith, Jones (2014) has argued
In contrast to Smith, Jones (2014) maintains
Despite this, little progress has been made in the …
However, this system also has a number of serious drawbacks.
On the other hand, in spite of these recent findings about the role of …,
124 | Page
Summarising a section or chapter
Thus far, it has been argued that
The previous section has shown that
To conclude this section, the literature identifies
This section has reviewed the three key aspects of …
In summary, it has been shown from this review that
This chapter has described the methods used in this investigation and it has …
This section has attempted to provide a brief summary of the literature relating to
This chapter began by describing X and arguing that … It went on to suggest that the …
In this section, it has been explained that … The chapter that follows moves on to consider the …
Previewing a following chapter
The next chapter describes synthesis and evaluation of …
A summary of the main findings, together with , is provided in the next chapter.
The next chapter describes the procedures and methods used in this investigation
In the next section, I will present the principal findings of the current investigation …
These analytical procedures and the results obtained from them are described in the next chapter.
In the chapter that follows I (briefly)
review
present
describe
examine
argue that
comment on
use the results obtained to discuss
The next chapter
The chapter that follows
moves on to consider
provides an account of
presents a case study of
establishes the framework for
reviews the literature related to
explores the relationship between
summarises the main themes that emerged
125 | Page
Indicating Shared Knowledge or Understanding
Sometimes a writer wishes to show that they are aware that an observation is probably shared by
the reader or that a fact is known by other members of the academic discipline. Phrases for
signalling this are listed below.
Assuming shared understanding with the reader
Of course,
Quite clearly,
It is clear that
It is obvious that
It is undeniable that
There is now no doubt that
Given this situation, it is hardly surprising that
One should not, of course, accept without question all
It is, of course,
true that
difficult to
possible that
inevitable that
recognised that
often the case that
debatable whether
unrealistic to expect
entirely possible that
too early to say whether
important to acknowledge
legitimate and highly desirable for
important to be very cautious about
impossible to arrive at a very reliable estimate of
Smith is
was
clearly
obviously
right
correct
to
include
criticise
say that
highlight
question
argue that
point out that
draw our attention to
stress the importance of
126 | Page
Assuming shared knowledge with members of the discipline
As is well known,
As has been shown
It is well known that
It is a well-known fact that
There is now broad consensus that
Smiths well-known argument is that
It is well known among social scientists that
What has been established and is now generally accepted is that
There is now relatively large consensus across the various disciplines that
It is
well established that
widely accepted that
generally understood that
widely acknowledged that …
common knowledge that X is
well known from previous studies that
127 | Page
Writing about the Past
Time phrases associated with the simple past tense: specific times or periods of time in the past
In 1933,
From 1933 to 1945,
In the 1930s and 1940s,
During the Nazi period,
Between 1933 and 1945,
restrictions were placed on German academics.
For centuries,
Throughout the 19th century,
At the start of the 19th century,
In the latter half of the 19th century,
At the beginning of the 19th century,
Towards the end of the 19th century,
In the early years of the 19th century,
At the end of the nineteenth century,
In the second half of the 19th century,
authorities in X placed restrictions on academics.
In the 1930s,
Half a century later,
Following World War I,
Fleming actively searched for anti-bacterial agents.
he was named one of the 100 Most Important People of the century.
Describing research history with past tense constructions
The link between X and Y was established in 2000 by Smith et al.
The association between X and Y was not demonstrated until 2012.
Prior to the work of Smith (1983), the role of X was largely unknown.
Before 1950, the X had received only cursory attention from historians.
The construct of X was first articulated by Smith (1977) and popularised in his book:
It was not until the late 1960s that historians considered X worthy of scholarly attention.
Awareness of X is not recent, having possibly first been described in the 5th century BCE by
The next research period involved innovative laboratory work in the late 1960s and into the 1970s.
Writing about the past in English involves choosing from the rather complex tense system. The
phrases grouped below give an indication of the uses of the main tenses in academic writing. For a
comprehensive explanation of the uses of the various tenses you will need to consult an English
grammar book. A good recommendation is Practical English Usage by Michael Swan, Oxford
University Press.
128 | Page
Time phrases associated with the use of the present perfect tense: past and present connected
To date, little evidence has been found associating X with Y.
Up to now, the research has tended to focus on X rather than on Y.
It is only since the work of Smith (2001) that the study of X has gained momentum.
So far, three factors have been identified as being potentially important: X, Y, and Z.
Since 1965, these four economies have doubled their share of world production and trade.
Until recently, there has been little interest in X.
Only in the past ten years have studies of X directly addressed how
Recently, these questions have been addressed by researchers in many fields.
In recent years, researchers have investigated a variety of approaches to X but …
More recently, literature has emerged that offers contradictory findings about …
Over the past century there has been a dramatic increase in …
The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many …
Over the past 30 years there has been a significant increase in …
Over the past two decades, major advances in molecular biology have allowed
Over the past few decades, the world has seen the stunning transformation of X, Y and Z.
The present perfect tense may also be used to describe relatively recent research with several
contributors
Several studies have revealed that …
Previous studies of X have not dealt with …
X has been intensively investigated recently due to its
A considerable amount of literature has been published on X.
X has been identified as major contributing factors for the decline of ….
Factors thought to be influencing X have been explored in several studies.
The new material has been shown to enhance X (Smith, 1985, Jones, 1987).
The relationship between X and Y has been widely investigated (Smith, 1985, Jones, …
There have been several investigations into the causes of X (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987).
For reference to single investigations or publications in the past, the simple past tense is used
The first systematic study of X was reported by Smith et al. in 1986.
The first experimental realisation of …, by Smith et al. [12], used a …
An experimental demonstration of this effect was first carried out by …
Smith and Jones (1994) were the first to describe X, and reported that …
X was originally isolated from Y in a soil sample from … (Smith et al., 1952).
Thirty years later, Smith (1974) reported three cases of .
In the 1950s, Smith pointed to some of the ways in which …
In 1960, Smith introduced a system of classification based on
In 1975, Smith et al. published a paper in which they described …
In 1984, Jones et al. made several amino acid esters of X and evaluated them as …
In 1981, Smith and co-workers demonstrated that X induced in vitro resistance to …
In 1990, Jones et al. demonstrated that replacement of H2O with heavy water led to …
129 | Page
Writing Abstracts
Highlighting the importance of the topic
X is vital for
X plays a key role in
X is a classic problem in
Xs were a major element of
There is a recognised need for
X is a condition that is characterized by
X is a pathogenic bacterium that causes
Recently, there has been renewed interest in
Since the 1960s, gradual changes in X have been observed.
The X industry is estimated to be worth over $300 billion annually.
An abstract is a short statement that describes a much longer piece of writing or a prospective
conference presentation. Abstracts for research papers or theses should provide the reader with a
quick overview of the entire study. Abstracts written for PhDs typically contain the following
elements:
Importance of the topic
and/or
Reference to the current literature
and/or
Identification of a knowledge gap
Aim(s) of the current study
Indication of the methods used
Statement of the key finding(s)
Implications of the findings
and/or
Value of the current study
The first three elements listed above are grouped together because, although they may substitute
each other, it is possible to find all three together. However, it is also possible to find PhD abstracts
where none of them are present. Of all the elements listed above, only the aims of the current
study and the statement of key findings appear to be obligatory and so these appear here in bold.
Note that all except the last two may also be found in the introductory section of a research paper;
the last two are normally found in the discussion and conclusion sections. Phrases associated with
all these elements are listed below.
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Reference to current literature
Several studies have documented
Studies of X show the importance of
Several attempts have been made to
A growing body of evidence suggests
X is becoming a common trend in Y research.
Recent studies related to X have shown that
X has been the focus of much investigation in the search for
X has emerged as a powerful tool in studying the behaviour of
There has been substantial research undertaken on the role of
Previous research has indicated potential associations between
X has attracted considerable attention, both scholarly and popular.
Identification of a knowledge gap
However, X has yet to be understood.
Previous studies of X have not dealt with …
Researchers have not treated X in much detail.
The historiography of X largely ignores the role of Y.
Most studies in the field of X have only focused on …
The contribution of X has received little attention within
For the past three decades, studies of X have been restricted to
The cellular mechanisms underlying those defects are still poorly understood.
No known empirical research has focused on exploring relationships between
This research has been impeded by the lack of appropriate attachment measures.
Aim of the current study
The aim of this study was to
This study set out to examine
This study set out to determine whether
The principal objective of this project was to investigate
In this study, techniques for X were developed and applied to
The present study aimed to explore the relationship between
This thesis
argues
reports on
investigates
analyses the roles played by
explores the degree to which
addresses a neglected aspect of
aims to portray the different ways in which
examines the chronology and geography of
seeks to understand and explain the role of
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Indication of methods used
The research is based on four case studies.
Contemporary source material was used to examine
This study provides a novel approach to quantifying X using
This study used a phenomenographic approach to identify the
An online survey provided quantitative data from 670 participants.
Questionnaire assessments of X were collected from 116 adults who
The study utilised a comparison control group design with three groups of
The research consisted of an extensive ethnographic enquiry that included
A combined qualitative and quantitative methodological approach was used to
A cross-sectional study was undertaken to explore the potential relationship between
Statement of key findings
Results showed that
This study identified
The findings show that
Respondents reported
The thesis concludes that
Analysis of X revealed that
The experimental data suggested that
Evidence is presented which shows that
The research presented here confirms that
The study identified limited evidence of the
The principal findings of this research are that
In this study, X was shown to vary in response to
This review found evidence that early interventions are effective in
The findings indicated that there was a positive relationship between
Significant associations for X were identified for ten variables, including
Implications and/or the value of the current study
The study implies that
The involvement of X implies that
It is evidently clear from the findings that
An implication of this is the possibility that …
The results of this study support the view that
These findings provide a solid evidence base for
The present results highlight the detrimental effects that X has on
These data support further clinical development of
The findings can contribute to a better understanding of
This research provides a timely and necessary study of the
The findings presented in this thesis add to our understanding of
The research results represent a further step towards developing
This study should, therefore, be of value to practitioners wishing to
As a result of these investigations, suggestions were identified for future research.
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Writing Acknowledgements
The acknowledgments sections in PhD theses are not simply a polite formality. They are
important because they reveal and pay tribute to the other people and to the bodies who made
the research possible. Typically included are: funding organisations, research institutes,
institutions, supervisors, collaborators, close colleagues and family members. In the majority of
cases, the structure moves from acknowledging the more formal support (funding bodies,
institutions, supervisors) to the most familiar (close friends and family members). The phrases
listed below illustrate some of the ways that thanks and appreciation can be expressed.
Firstly,
Secondly,
Finally,
I wish to
I want to
I would like to
thank X
extend my thanks to X
give special thanks to X
express my gratitude to X
for his constant
for her continuous
advice.
support.
tolerance.
patience.
guidance.
forbearance.
reassurance.
encouragement.
Most of all,
In particular,
First and foremost,
Last but not least,
I would like to thank
my supervisor for
the University of X for
each of the participants in this study for
I am
also
very
deeply
forever
equally
eternally
especially
extremely
immensely
particularly
grateful to X for
133 | Page
I owe a great deal to
I owe a debt of gratitude to
I want to express my gratitude to
I am indebted to my supervisors for their
I must thank X for the award of the funding which enabled me to undertake
I think it is essential that I thank my long term friend and companion, X, for his
I welcome this opportunity to thank the friends, family and colleagues who provided
I must express my sincere appreciation to X for her constant and continued support and patience.
My
special
sincere
warmest
heartfelt
thanks go to
are due to X
who has always encouraged me to
who provided the help, guidance and support
who has been an unstinting source of support
who always made time to help and support me
for his continued support and patience.
for agreeing to participate in this study.
for her guidance, encouragement and support.
for her academic supervision and personal support.
A very special thank you goes out to
Thanks also to the University of X, for providing the data for
Thanks to the staff of X for their contributions to the research
My gratitude is also extended to the following funding bodies:
My acknowledgements would not be complete without thanking
There were a multitude of individuals who helped me to arrive at this point, and
Most importantly, I would not have been able to afford to undertake this endeavour without
X has been
supportive and patient throughout the writing of this thesis.
an unfailing source of encouragement, advice and reassurance.
a continuing source of encouragement and optimism throughout.
supportive and has provided me with invaluable teaching opportunities.
X has offered valuable advice on specific aspects of …
X has provided valuable assistance with accessing online resources.
Xs enthusiasm for my topic, was essential in helping me complete this project.
X has monitored my progress and offered advice and encouragement throughout.
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Notes on Academic Writing
135 | Page
A Note on Academic Style
The principal characteristics of written academic style are listed below.
1. Academic writing is evidence-based
Perhaps the most important distinguishing feature of written academic style is that it is evidencebased. Writers support their arguments and claims with evidence from the body of knowledge
relevant to their discipline. Furthermore, any research that is undertaken must make reference to
previous work in the field. As a result, academic texts are rich in attributions to other writers and
references to previous research, as seen in the examples below:
Previous studies have shown that …
These sources suggest that from the fifth century onwards ….
According to the 1957 Annual Medical Report, the death of the 960 inhabitants of …
However, as has been shown elsewhere (e.g. Smith, 1992), the increase in …
For further examples, refer to the section on Referring to the Literature in this document.
In addition, general propositions are usually supported with real examples.
This can be seen in the case of …
A good example of this can be found in …
2. Academic writing contains many words of classical origin
Unlike everyday English, academic writing is characterised by a high frequency of words of classical
origin (Greek and Latin). The main reason for this is that Latin was the lingua academica during the
European renaissance; in other words, it was the international language of scholars. Even up until
relatively recently, great works of science, such as Isaac Newtons Philosophi Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (1687), were written in Latin. Where academic texts were written in English, words of
classical origin were used for concepts and phenomena for which there was no equivalent in English.
Although the lingua academica of today is English, writers of academic English still tend to use words
which are derived from Latin, and also, mainly through Latin, from Greek.
everyday words academic words
a lot of
big
bring together
get rid of
not enough
story
thing
trouble
way (of doing)
worry

considerable
significant
synthesise
eradicate
insufficient
anecdote
object
difficulty
method
concern
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There are also some changes to grammatical words (though these are not of classical origin):
everyday words academic words
not much research
not many studies
isnt any evidence

little research
few studies
no evidence
3. Academic writing tends to be cautious
Academic writers are careful about the claims they make: they take care not to appear certain where
some doubt may exist, and they are careful not to over-generalise. An example of this kind of
transformation can be seen below. The second sentence is in academic style:
Drinking alcohol causes breast cancer in women.
Some studies suggest that drinking alcohol increases the risk of breast cancer in women.
For more examples of this kind of language, refer to the section on Being Cautious.
4. Academic writing is normally impersonal
In the interests of objectivity, academic writers tend to remove themselves from the writing. The
focus is on what happened, how it was done, and what was found. The who (the writer) is not
normally given very much attention. This is one of the reasons why personal pronouns (I and we)
tend not to be used. In addition, academic texts rarely address the reader directly and the pronoun
normally used for this, you, is avoided. The second sentence is in academic style:
You could say that Churchill made some catastrophic decisions early in the War.
It can be said that Churchill made some catastrophic decisions early in the War.
There are some exceptions: in certain disciplines, it may be appropriate for a writer to explain their
personal interest in the research area. In some disciplines, the researcher may participate in the
research as a participant-observer. In these cases, I will be used. The example below, which
illustrates the former situation, is taken from a dissertation in History.
I became interested in X after reading I hope to convey some of my fascination for the
subject, as well as expressing my admiration of the artistic achievements of those involved.
In research undertaken by teams, for example in medicine and science, it is common for the research
to be reported using the personal pronoun, e.g. we.
5. Academic writing avoids contracted forms
Contracted forms (e.g. its, dont, isnt, arent) should not be used in academic writing. The only
exception would be if you are transcribing a recorded conversation or interview.
137 | Page
6. Academic writing uses nominalisation
There is a tendency for academic writers to transform verbs (actions) into nouns. In the example
below, the verb opened becomes the noun opening.
The Liverpool and Manchester railway opened in 1830. This brought increased prosperity to
both cities.
The opening of the Liverpool and Manchester railway in 1830 brought increased prosperity to
both cities.
As a result of this kind of transformation, academic writing is characterised by long noun phrase
constructions, as in: The opening of the Liverpool and Manchester railway in 1830. In certain cases,
these nominalised forms can become very long and complex:
the effect of reducing aggressiveness by producing an ACTH-mediated condition of decreased
androgen levels.
Although this kind of construction is considered normal in scientific writing, unless the reader is
familiar with the constructions, it does make reading difficult as there are so many pieces of
information to process in the one sentence. There is an argument that too much nominalisation
should be discouraged.
7. Academic writing avoids rhetorical questions
Questions to introduce significant new ideas are avoided, and are replaced with statements:
Is the welfare system good or not?
It is important to consider the effectiveness of the British welfare system.
However, setting out a list of research questions in the introductory section of a research report is
quite common.
8. Academic writing is precise and detailed
Last of all, one of the most noticeable features of academic writing is that it is very precise and
detailed. This relates to the setting out and development of the thinking and the ideas, as well as to
the language used in the writing.
138 | Page
A Note on Style in Academic Presentations
In contrast to written style, the communicative style of academic presentations tends to be much
more personal and familiar. The majority of the phrases listed below serve as useful signposts for
spoken academic presentations. Signposts help the listeners follow where the talk is going. Notice
how the personal pronouns (I, we, and you) are used in most of these phrases.
Introducing the presentation
In this paper,
I’d like to
report on a study which aimed to
explore a very important aspect of …
examine two important problems facing …
describe some of the more recent developments in
Ill mainly focus on
This afternoon, I’d like to
discuss …
describe …
speak about …
present my findings on
address the question of
The aim of my presentation is to
assess
discuss
explore
examine
compare
argue that
critically evaluate
offer a new model for
address the question of
explore the ways in which
report on the findings of my study which
We know that X
is
fundamental to
a leading cause of
an important aspect of
has
plays
a critical role in
a pivotal role in
139 | Page
One of the most
pressing
important
interesting
challenging
problems in this area is …
Defining and organising the topic
There are three main types of X in …
many different kinds of …
In this paper, I use the term X to refer to
In this presentation, I am using the term X to refer to
X can best be treated under three headings. These are: …
I’ve divided my presentation into three sections. The first section
Indicating sequence
First of all,
To begin with,
In the first part of this paper,
I’d like to talk about … and then (Ill) go on to
Ill begin by
Ill then go on to
Another important aspect of X is …
Finally, Ill argue that
Finally, I’d like to consider X.
Highlighting statements
There are two important
causes of …
reasons for …
consequences of …
It is worth noting that
It is important to stress that
Perhaps the most interesting aspect of this is …
What is important for us to recognise here, is that
140 | Page
Referring to a visual
If we could focus for a moment on Figure 1, …
turn for a moment to look at Table 2, we can see that
Here we can see that
This can be clearly seen when we look at
We can see this clearly in the following diagram:
Indicating transition
I’d like now to move on to
discuss
examine
consider
address the question of
Turning now to …
Moving on to look at the relationship between ,
Having looked at …, I’d now like to move on to discuss …
Before I move on to consider X, I’d like to briefly look at …
Concluding a talk
In this presentation, Ive
shown that
argued that
explained that
So, to conclude,
Id like to conclude by saying that
In conclusion, I’d like to suggest that …
Are there any questions?
Does anyone have any questions?
That covers the main points. If you have any questions, I’ll be happy to answer them.
141 | Page
A Note on British and US Spelling
The most common difference which is noticed in academic writing concerns verbs which end in
ise/yse Br. or ize/yze US:
analyse Br. v analyze US.
industrialise Br. v industrialize US.
summarise Br. v summarize US.
This difference also affects the nouns derived from the verbs:
organisation Br. v organization US.
globalisation Br. v globalization US.
colonisation Br. v colonization US.
Another noticeable difference relates to words ending in re:
centre Br. v center US.
metre Br. v meter US.
litre Br. v liter US.
Below are some other differences. Can you see any patterns?
British US
aeroplane
analogue
behaviour
catalogue
colour
connection
defence
dialogue
endeavour
encyclopaedia
fibre
foetus
instalment
labour
paediatric
plough
programme
rigour
sceptical
skilful
travelled
airplane
analog
behavior
catalog
color
connexion
defense
dialog
endeavor
encyclopedia
fiber
fetus
installment
labor
pediatric
plow
program
rigor
skeptical
skillful
traveled
If you are writing for a British university or a British journal, you should use the British spelling.
If you are writing for a US university or journal, you should use the US spelling.
142 | Page
A Note on Punctuation
As the purpose of punctuation is to make written English easier to read and to make the meaning
clear and unambiguous, good, accurate punctuation is important in academic writing. The following
notes highlight points of particular relevance to academic writing.
1. Full stop .
To indicate the end of a sentence
To indicate an abbreviation such as etc., et al. (not always used)
To indicate an omission in a quoted text [ … ].
2. Comma ,
To separate two main parts of a sentence (two clauses) joined by words such as and, or, but,
To separate a dependent part of a sentence (beginning with words such as although, when,
because) from the main part, particularly if the dependent part comes first in the sentence
To indicate additional information, however relevant it may be, in a sentence
To indicate a non-defining relative clause, which simply provides additional information, in a
sentence
To separate items in a list such as: apples, oranges, and pears (note that the final comma
before and is often omitted).
3. Colon :
To introduce an explanation: The reason the experiment failed was obvious: the equipment
was faulty.
To introduce a list, particularly a grammatically complex list. See the example below under
semi-colon
To introduce a direct quotation, particularly a long one: Jones (2003) states that: .
4. Semi-colon ;
To separate two sentences that are very closely connected in meaning (optional, in place of a
full stop): Some students prefer to write essays; others prefer to give presentations.
To separate clearly items in a grammatically complex list: For Aristotle, motion is of four
kinds: (1) motion which …; (2) motion which …; (3) motion which …; and (4) motion which…
5. Quotation marks /
To indicate a direct quotation
To highlight words or phrases used in a special or unusual way: Quotation marks are also
called inverted commas.
NB Single quotation marks now seem to be more commonly used than double. For quotations within
quotations, use double quotation marks inside single (or single inside double).
6. Dash
Generally avoid in formal academic writing. Replace by colon, semi-colon, or brackets, as
appropriate.
143 | Page
A Note on Article Use
Article use in English is a very complex area. However, there are a few simple rules which will help
you in many situations and these are explained below:
1. Singular countable nouns
All singular countable nouns are always preceded by a small modifying word known in grammar as a
determiner, and this is often an article (a/an, the). Countable words which are common in academic
writing and which often cause problems for non-native speakers of English, include: system, model,
method, approach, group, problem, effect, level, investigation, sector, study, participant, condition,
category
Note that even if these words are preceded by attributive nouns or adjectives, a determiner is still
needed:
the greenhouse effect, the transport system, the control group
a high level, a systematic approach, a rigorous study, an exploratory investigation
2. Plural countable nouns
If the writer is thinking about a specific group, then the definite article is normally used: The books
in this collection were published in the 19th or early 20th century.
Otherwise no article is used:
Learners tend to remember new facts when they are contextualised.
3. Uncountable nouns
Uncountable nouns are not normally accompanied by an article:
Science has been defined as a systematic approach to answering questions.
Reliability is an important quality of any test.
But if they are post-modified by of…., or which the definite article is normally used:
The science of global warming is a complex and controversial area.
The reliability of this instrument is poor.
Chemistry is the science which addresses the composition and behaviour of matter.
144 | Page
4. Names
Names and titles are not normally preceded by the definite article (the)
Manchester University, Manchester
But this changes if the noun phrase contains a post-modifying structure (of …)
The University of Manchester, The United States of America
or if they contain words like organisation, association or institute
The World Health Organisation, The American Heart Association, The Royal Society. The SETI
Institute
Apart from these simple rules, the other thing you need to do is to check how noun phrases are used
in the texts that you read. Make a mental note of this as you read, or check back to the source text
when you are writing.
145 | Page
A Note on Sentence Structure
1. Simple sentences
In written English, all sentences contain a Subject Verb structure. The subject always precedes the
verb, except in questions where the order is reversed.
S V
An electron is an elementary particle.
The subject may be one word, but it is usually a group of words centred around a noun. The verb,
which can indicate an action, a state, or simply serve to link the subject to other information, may
also consist of more than one word. Various other sentence elements may be placed before or after
the Subject Verb structure:
S V
Between 1933 and 1945, restrictions were placed on German academics.
It is common for the subject to consist of many words:
S V
The information on various types of
wasps and bees in the report
was useful to environmentalists who were
fighting the use of pesticides.
Sometimes, however, the subject and verb can just be one word each:
S V
It is almost certain that a lower speed limit will result in fewer injuries to pedestrians.
These simple sentences always end with a full stop. In academic writing, however, many sentences
are more complicated than this simple pattern.
2. Complex sentences
Many sentences contain more than one Subject Verb structure, but in a complex sentence one of
these parts (known grammatically as clauses) will convey the main meaning and will make sense by
itself:
Dependent part Main part
S V S V
Although recent research has shown X, no controlled studies have been reported.
The main part of the sentence is also known as the independent part.
146 | Page
The main part of the sentence can also be placed before the dependent part.
Main part
S V
Oral societies tend to be more concerned with the present
Dependent part
S V
whereas literate societies have a very definite awareness of the past.
The dependent part of complex sentence is usually preceded by a word or phrase such as: although,
even though, if, even if, when, because, as, since, whereas, while (refer to subordinators on the next
page).
3. Compound sentences
Some sentences may have two Subject Verb structures and each of these convey meaning that
can make sense by itself; in other words, there are two main parts. The two parts may be joined by
words like and, or, but, so, or by using a semi-colon (;) .
S V
Supporters of the Great Divide theory agree that something is lost as well as gained when
people become literate,
S V
but they consider it is worth losing some benefits in order to obtain many others.
4. Common problems relating to sentence structure
It is incorrect to write the dependent part of a complex sentence as a complete sentence with a full
stop:
Whereas literate societies have a very definite awareness of the past. X
Although a number of studies have been undertaken. X
It is incorrect to write two independent parts as one sentence without a joining word.
Supporters of the Great Divide theory agree that something is lost as well as gained when
people become literate, they consider it is worth losing some benefits in order to obtain many
others. X
147 | Page
A Note on Paragraph Structure
A pattern that can be identified in many well-written paragraphs is that of a controlling idea followed
by supporting information. The controlling idea, sometimes referred to as the topic sentence,
introduces a new idea, topic, argument or piece of information into the main text. This is then either
explained further or supported by subsequent sentences. This structure can be represented
schematically thus:
Topic Sentence
(new point, expressed in general terms)
Supporting Information which may include a combination of:
statistics
examples
quotations
a development in time
an explanation or reason
specific aspects or details
an effect or consequence
reference to previous research
It is important that the explanatory or supporting information in a paragraph should relate to the topic
sentence. If new points or ideas are to be stated, then these should be treated in a separate paragraph.
It is also important that the explanatory or supporting information should not repeat the general ideas
expressed in the topic sentence.
An example of the kind of paragraph structure suggested above is given below. Note the
development from the general idea to the more detailed information. Also note the thematic linking,
which is signalled by the words in bold, between the sentences. Each of these words and phrases
links back to an idea introduced in the previous sentence. Here, the sentences have been separated.
Many children become interested in competitive sport at early
ages.
Early involvement (prior to maturity) in competitive sport often
exposes individuals to types of stress that may affect their growth,
producing a disruption of the normal growth pattern (Wang, 1978;
Brown, 1998).
Among cyclists the most potentially serious of these disorders is
likely to be increased thoracic curvature.
Cycling alters the anatomical position of the spine (to a flexed
position) particularly the thoracic spine, and exposes the anterior
portion of the vertebral column to higher compression (Smith,
1998; Jones, 2002).
148 | Page
A Note on the Writing Process
So far this document has been about what we write. The following section comprises a set of notes
which are concerned with how we write. It is organised into a series of helpful tips. Although only
two pages are devoted to these ideas, together they have the potential to make a significant
deference to the quality and quantity of your written output.
Tip No. 1. The importance of planning: Research has shown that
experienced writers plan extensively. Initially, planning may involve
simply generating ideas and exploring the relationships between
them schematically, as in the diagram to the right. At a more
advanced stage of the planning process, a chapter outline of the
thesis or dissertation will be necessary. This will become more
detailed as you work on your study. You need to think of a writing
plan as a road map. Without a map, you will probably lose your way
or travel in circles.
Tip No. 2. Getting started: Many writers suffer from writers block;
they find it difficult to get started. One way of overcoming this is to
give yourself a short period of time (say four minutes), and without
stopping, write whatever comes into your mind about the topic. The
important thing to do is to keep writing, or if you are using a
keyboard, to keep typing. Dont worry about spelling of grammar
just keep producing words. You will be surprised at how much text
you will produce, and how many ideas are generated in such a short
time. Now you can begin to organise the ideas you have produced,
ensuring that they are written in logically developed and grammatically correct sentences.
Tip No. 3. Be regular: You should timetable yourself so that you have a regular daily writing slot. This
may seem obvious, but it is fundamental to ensuring the production of written text. Timetable a
writing period each day, and aim to produce some text every time. How much you produce will vary,
and what you produce, even if it is just a few paragraphs, may only be in the initial draft stage. This is
not so important. The important thing is that the writing becomes a part of your daily routine. Simply
getting your body to sit in front of a computer at a certain time each day will produce results.
Tip No. 4. Keep a notebook: When we are writing up a major piece
of work, many ideas and insights come to us when we are not
actually writing. Often, some of the most insightful ideas emerge
when we are in a non-focused cognitive state, such as when we are
walking, running, or swimming. Unless you can capture these ideas
soon after they come to you, they may be lost. A small notebook and
a pen is probably the best way to capture these thoughts before they
disappear. The notebook itself can become a place where you
develop the ideas and even start to formulate how the ideas will be developed in textual form.
149 | Page
Tip No. 5. Understand the recursive process: Writing at the
academic level is not something we can do once and then leave. It
is a recursive process. This means writers return to their initial
texts, revising and redrafting them. This process is ongoing. In fact,
many writers find it difficult to stop improving their writing, but
with time being limited, they try to do as much as they can before
the onset of a particular deadline. One thing we do know:
successful writers write initial drafts, redraft, work on final drafts
and then edit their work.
Tip No. 6. Read your own writing: Read what you have written back to yourself, out loud if
necessary, and ask yourself: i) do I understand what I have written? ii) does it sound natural?
Reading your text out load is actually the best way of checking this. If what you have written does not
sound right to you when you do this, it is probably badly written. One famous French writer (Gustav
Flaubert) used to shout out his manuscripts before sending them off to be published. He claimed that
bad writing never passed this simple test.
Tip No. 7. Stand back from your writing: Think of yourself as a
mountain climber. Most climbers, during a climb, can only see a few
feet in front of their faces. They cannot see the whole mountain.
They can see other mountains, but not the one they are climbing. To
do this they need to move a few kilometres away. At such a distance,
they can see the route they are planning and they can see how their
planned route moves up the mountain. As a writer, you should ask
yourself: Is the route to the top unbroken? Do all the minor steps
move upwards? Can the minor steps be carried out more clearly?
The best way to create a sense of distance with your writing is with time: Leave it a few days, or longer,
and comeback to your writing with fresh eyes and with a better sense of the overall structure.
Tip No. 8. Talk about your writing: Writing is a very solitary activity and we tend not to talk about it
to others. This is quite strange given that we spend so many hours on this activity. Asking another
person to read some of what you have written and to give feedback can be a very useful experience;
particularly if the feedback is reciprocal and both of you receive constructive criticism. It is worth
bearing in mind that academic writers often receive their papers back from journal editors or
publishers asking them to make changes. You might also consider forming a group of writers like
yourself. Together you can read each others writing and share the feedback.
150 | Page
Useful Lists
151 | Page
A List of Words and Phrases Used to Connect Ideas
As well as using simple conjunctions (e.g., and, but, or) to link ideas, academic writers have available
to them a broad range of more sophisticated words and phrases. Some of the more commonly used
ones are listed below.
Words and phrases which
link ideas across two
sentences1
Words or phrases
which precede a noun
phrase2
Subordinators: express
relationships within one
sentence (with two clauses)3
Addition also
moreover
in addition
furthermore
in addition to
Adversativity yet
however
nevertheless
on the other hand
despite
in spite of
although
even though
Aspect in this respect
in other respects
from this perspective
Clarification that is
in other words
Consequence thus
hence
therefore
as a result
consequently
Contrast however
in contrast
on the other hand
unlike
in contrast to
while
whereas
Illustration for example
for instance
Reason due to
owing to
because of
on account of
as
since
because
Sequence firstly
first of all
secondly
finally
in conclusion
1 He did not sleep very much. However, he still managed to pass the exam.
He did not sleep very much; however, he still managed to pass the exam.
2 Despite the lack of sleep, he still managed to pass the exam.
He still managed to pass the exam despite the lack of sleep.
3 Even though he was unable to sleep, he still managed to pass the exam.
He still managed to pass the exam even though he was unable to sleep.
152 | Page
A List of Commonly Used Verbs
The tables below contain a list of verbs that can be found in academic writing. The list, which is
organised alphabetically, only includes the more generic and commonly used verbs. Note that British
spellings are used. Most of the verbs below are found in the Academic Phrasebank and a small
number of additional verbs have been drawn from Coxheads Academic Word List.
https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/resources/academicwordlist/awl-headwords
A
abandon
accelerate
accentuate
accept
access
accommodate
accompany
accomplish
account for
accumulate
achieve
acknowledge
acquire
adapt
add to
adopt
address
adjust
administer
advocate
affect
aggravate
aggregate
agree
aid
allocate
allow
alter
amend
amplify
analyse
anonymise
anticipate
append
apply
appraise
appreciate
approach
approve
approximate
argue
arise
arrange
ascertain
assay
assemble
assert
assess
assign
assist
associate
assume
assure
attach
attain
attempt
attend
attract
attribute
automate
avoid
B
base on
benefit
boost
broaden
brief
bring about
C
calculate
capture
carry out
cast doubt on
categorise
cause
caution
cease
challenge
change
channel
cite
claim
clarify
classify
code
coincide
collapse
collect
commence
comment
commit
communicate
compare
compensate
compile
complement
complete
compose
comprehend
comprise
compute
concede
conceive
concentrate
conceptualise
concern
conclude
conduct
confer
confine
confirm
conflict
conform
confound
connect
consent
consider
consist
constitute
constrain
contradict
construct
consult
consume
contradict
contrast
contribute
control
convene
converse
convert
convince
cooperate
coordinate
counteract
correspond
corroborate
cover
create
credit
criticise
critique
D
date
deal with
debate
decline
decrease
deduce
defend
define
delay
demonstrate
denote
deny
depress
derive
describe
design
detect
deter
determine
develop
deviate
devote
differ
differentiate
diminish
discover
discriminate
discuss
display
displace
dispute
dissect
dispose
distinguish
divide
document
draft
draw from
draw together
draw (up)on
draw up
drive
E
edit
elicit
eliminate
elucidate
embody
embrace
emerge
employ
enable
encompass
encourage
engage
enhance
ensure
equate
establish
estimate
evaluate
evolve
exacerbate
examine
exceed
exclude
execute
exemplify
exist
experience
experiment
explain
explore
express
extend
extract
extrapolate
F
fabricate
facilitate
fail
familiarise
find
fluctuate
focus
format
formulate
foster
found
G
gain
gather
gauge
generalise
generate
grade
grant
grasp
group
grow
guarantee
153 | Page
H
heighten
highlight
hinder
hold
hypothesise I
identify
ignore
illustrate
impair
impede
implement
implicate
imply
impose
improve
incline
include
incorporate
increase
include
indicate
induce
influence
inhibit
initiate
infer
influence
innovate
input
insert
insist
inspect
instruct
integrate
intensify
interact
interfere
interpret
intervene
interview
introduce
invest
investigate
invoke
involve
isolate
J
judge
justify L
label
lack
layer lay out
lead
lecture
level off
limit
link
list
locate M
maintain
manipulate
match
maximise
measure
mediate
mention
migrate
minimise
mislead
model
moderate
modify
monitor N
negate
neglect
normalise
note
notify O
observe
obstruct
obtain
occupy
occur
offer
offset
operate
oppose
order
organise
originate
outline
overlap
overlook P
paraphrase
participate
pay attention to
perceive
perform
perpetuate
persist
persuade
pinpoint
pioneer
play a role
plot
point
t
o
/ towards
point out
popularise
pose
postulate
prepare
precede
preclude
predict
prescribe
present
presume
prevent
prioritise
proceed
prohibit
project
promote
prompt
propose
proscribe
prove
provide
publish
pursue Q
qualify
quantify
quote
question R
raise
rank rate
reach
react
recall
recognise
recommend
record
recover
recruit
reduce
refer
refine
reflect
refuse
regard
register
regulate
reinforce
reject
relate
relax
release
relinquish
rely
remain
remedy
remark
remind
remove
renew
repeat
report
represent
require
research
reside
resolve
respond
restate
restore
restrain
restrict
result from
result in
retain
reverse
reveal
retrieve
review
revise
rise
rule out S
search
secure
seek
select
separate
sequence
serve
set out
set up
shed light on
shift
show
signify
simplify
simulate
skew
solve
source
speculate
specify
speed up
state
stimulate
stress
structure
struggle
subdivide
subject to
submit
subscribe
substantiate
substitute
succeed
suffer
suggest
summarise
supplement
support
surrender
survey
sustain
synthesise
survive
suspend T
tabulate
tackle
take into
account
take issue
with
target
tend
terminate
test
throw up
tie together
trace
transfer
transform
transcribe
translate
transmit
treat
trigger U
underestimate
undergo
underlie
understand
undertake
unify
use
utilise V
validate
value
vary
violate
visualise W
weaken
withstand
witness
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A List of Commonly Confused Words
Your spellchecker will only indicate words that are misspelt which it does not recognise. However, if
the word that you have misspelt is correct when it has a different meaning, the spellchecker will not
show you the correct form of the word you want. In these cases, the writer has to know the correct
spelling. The list below contains words which are commonly misspelt, as well as words which may be
spelt correctly but which are simply confused.
abbreviation/acronym
An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always, it consists of a
letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. Dr. and Prof. are common examples. An
acronym is an abbreviation formed from the initial components in a phrase or a word. These
elements in turn form a new word: NATO, Benelux, UNESCO.
affect/effect
Affect is a verb, e.g. A affects B;
Effect is a noun and is therefore, in its singular form, always used after an article/determiner (an or
the/this), e.g. The Greenhouse Effect.
compliment/complement
Compliment (verb) means to praise someone. Complement (verb) means to complete or add
something in a way that usually improves it. Both words can also be used as nouns.
comprise/consist
Both words mean to be made up of, but only consist is accompanied by of.
discrete/discreet
Discrete is an adjective which means separate or distinct. Discreet is an adjective which means to
keep silent or tactful about something.
formerly/formally
Formerly means earlier. Formally means conventionally or officially.
i.e./e.g.
i.e. is the abbreviation for id est which mean that is or in other words.
e.g. is the abbreviation for exempli gratia which has the same meaning as for example and for
instance.
its/it’s
its without an apostrophe – is a possessive determiner similar to ‘my’ or ‘your’ .
it’s is a contracted form of ‘it is’ or ‘it has’ . Note, however, that contracted forms are avoided in
academic writing.
later/latter
Later is an adverb which means at an advanced point of time. Latter is an adjective used to refer to
an item listed in a text. It means most recently mentioned; in other words, the last item.
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practice/practise
In British English, practice is a noun and practise is a verb. American English allows both spellings for
both forms.
precede/proceed
The verb precede means to come before. The verb proceed means to go forward or to begin to
carry out.
principle/principal
Principle is a noun which means a basic belief, theory or rule. Principal is an adjective which means
main or most important; it can also refer to a head teacher of a school.
there/their
There is used to indicate the existence of something, e.g. There are two famous football teams in
Manchester. The word their is used to indicate possession, i.e. if something belongs to someone or
something.
prescribe/proscribe
The verb prescribe means to advise or authorise the use of something. The verb proscribe means to
forbid or to restrict.